TypeScript Folha de referência

// hello.ts
const message: string = "Hello, TypeScript!";
console.log(message);

// Compile to JavaScript (type annotations erased):
//   tsc hello.ts          -> hello.js
//   tsc --strict hello.ts  // enable all strict checks
//   tsc --watch hello.ts   // recompile on change

// Run directly with ts-node or bun:
//   ts-node hello.ts

{
  "compilerOptions": {
    "target": "ES2020",        // JS version to emit
    "module": "ESNext",        // module system
    "strict": true,            // enable all strict checks
    "outDir": "./dist",        // output directory
    "rootDir": "./src",        // source root
    "esModuleInterop": true,   // allow default imports from CJS
    "skipLibCheck": true,      // skip .d.ts type checking
    "forceConsistentCasingInFileNames": true
  },
  "include": ["src/**/*"],
  "exclude": ["node_modules", "dist"]
}

// Explicit type annotations
let count: number = 0;
const name: string = "Alice";
let isDone: boolean = true;
let ids: number[] = [1, 2, 3];
let tuple: [string, number] = ["age", 30];

// Type inference (let TS figure it out)
let age = 30;           // inferred as number
let items = [1, 2, 3];  // inferred as number[]
let mixed = [1, "a"];   // inferred as (string | number)[]

// any disables type checking (avoid!)
let anything: any = 42;
anything = "string";    // no error

// strictNullChecks: null/undefined not assignable to other types
let n: string = null; // Error in strict mode

// noImplicitAny: must annotate parameters
function greet(name) { } // Error: implicit any

// strictPropertyInitialization
class User {
  name: string; // Error: not initialized
  constructor() {}
}

// Fix: initialize or use definite assignment
class Fixed {
  name!: string; // definite assignment assertion
  age: number = 0;
}

// types.d.ts - type declarations only, no implementation
declare module "my-lib" {
  export function greet(name: string): string;
  export const version: string;
}

// global.d.ts - extend global scope
declare global {
  interface Window {
    myApp: { version: string };
  }
}

// Usage in .ts files:
// import { greet } from "my-lib";  // now typed
// Install @types packages: npm i -D @types/node @types/react

let str: string = "hello";
let num: number = 42;
let bool: boolean = true;
let big: bigint = 100n;
let sym: symbol = Symbol("id");

// void: function returns nothing
function log(msg: string): void { console.log(msg); }

// never: function never returns
function fail(msg: string): never { throw new Error(msg); }
function infinite(): never { while (true) {} }

// Two syntaxes for arrays
let nums: number[] = [1, 2, 3];
let strs: Array<string> = ["a", "b"];

// ReadonlyArray (immutable)
const ro: ReadonlyArray<number> = [1, 2, 3];
// ro.push(4); // Error: not mutable

// Tuple (fixed length, known types)
let tuple: [string, number] = ["Alice", 30];
let name = tuple[0]; // string
let age = tuple[1];  // number

// Labeled tuple elements (TS 4.0+)
let entry: [name: string, age: number] = ["Bob", 25];

// Numeric enum (default starts at 0)
enum Direction { Up, Down, Left, Right }
let d: Direction = Direction.Up;  // 0

// String enum (recommended for readability)
enum Status {
  Pending = "PENDING",
  Success = "SUCCESS",
  Failed = "FAILED",
}

// Reverse mapping (numeric only)
console.log(Direction[0]); // "Up"

// Const enum (inlined, no runtime object)
const enum Color { Red, Green, Blue }
let c = Color.Red; // compiles to: let c = 0;

// any: opt out of type checking (dangerous!)
let a: any = 42;
a = "string";       // OK
a.toUpperCase();    // OK (no check, may fail at runtime)

// unknown: type-safe alternative to any
let u: unknown = 42;
// u.toUpperCase(); // Error: unknown type
if (typeof u === "string") {
  u.toUpperCase();  // OK after narrowing
}

// never: impossible value (exhaustiveness check)
type Shape = "circle" | "square";
function area(s: Shape) {
  switch (s) {
    case "circle": return Math.PI;
    case "square": return 1;
    default:
      const _exhaustive: never = s; // Error if case missing
  }
}

// as syntax (preferred, works in .tsx)
let val: unknown = "hello";
let len: number = (val as string).length;

// Non-null assertion (!)
let el = document.querySelector("#app")!;
el.innerHTML = "Hi";  // el is HTMLElement, not null

// Double assertion (for unsafe casts)
let value = "42" as unknown as number;

// const assertion (literal types)
const req = { method: "GET", url: "/api" } as const;
// req.method has type "GET" (not string)
// req is readonly

// String literal types
let direction: "left" | "right" | "up" | "down";
direction = "left";  // OK
// direction = "sideways"; // Error

// Numeric literal types
let dice: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6;
dice = 4;  // OK

// Boolean literal
let flag: true = true;

// Template literal types (TS 4.1+)
type Color = "red" | "blue";
type Size = "small" | "large";
type Variant = `${Size}-${Color}`;
// "small-red" | "small-blue" | "large-red" | "large-blue"

interface User {
  id: number;
  name: string;
  email?: string;        // optional property
  readonly createdAt: Date; // immutable
}

const user: User = {
  id: 1,
  name: "Alice",
  createdAt: new Date(),
};

// user.createdAt = new Date(); // Error: readonly
// user.email; // string | undefined

// Index signature: arbitrary string keys
interface StringMap {
  [key: string]: string;
}

const dict: StringMap = {
  name: "Alice",
  city: "NYC",
  // count: 42, // Error: value must be string
};

// Mixed: known + index signature
interface Config {
  name: string;
  [key: string]: string | number;
}

// Readonly index signature
interface ReadonlyMap {
  readonly [key: string]: number;
}

interface Animal {
  name: string;
  eat(): void;
}

interface Pet extends Animal {
  owner: string;
  play(): void;
}

interface Swimmer {
  swim(): void;
}

// Multiple inheritance
interface Duck extends Pet, Swimmer {
  quack(): void;
}

const duck: Duck = {
  name: "Donald",
  owner: "Walt",
  eat() {},
  play() {},
  swim() {},
  quack() {},
};

interface SearchFn {
  (source: string, keyword: string): boolean;
}

const contains: SearchFn = (src, kw) => src.includes(kw);
console.log(contains("hello world", "world")); // true

// Interface with mixed members (hybrid)
interface Counter {
  (start: number): void;  // callable
  count: number;           // property
  reset(): void;           // method
}

// Function with properties (jQuery-style)
const counter: any = (n: number) => { counter.count = n; };
counter.count = 0;
counter.reset = () => { counter.count = 0; };

// Interface: extendable, better error messages
interface Window { title: string; }
interface Window { size: number; } // declaration merging
const w: Window = { title: "App", size: 800 };

// Type alias: more flexible (unions, primitives, etc.)
type ID = string | number;
type Callback<T> = (value: T) => void;

// Both can describe object shapes
interface UserI { name: string; }
type UserT = { name: string; };

// Use interface for objects/classes, type for unions/aliases

interface User {
  profile?: {
    address?: {
      city?: string;
    };
  };
}

const user: User = {};

// Optional chaining (?.) - safe property access
const city = user.profile?.address?.city; // string | undefined

// Nullish coalescing (??) - default value
const name = user.profile?.address?.city ?? "Unknown";

// Non-null assertion (!) - you're sure it's not null
// const c = user.profile!.address!.city!; // risky

// Optional method call
const result = user.profile?.address?.city?.toUpperCase();

// Basic alias
type ID = string | number;
type Point = { x: number; y: number };

// Generic alias
type Container<T> = { value: T };

// Function type alias
type Handler<T> = (event: T) => void;

// Usage
const id: ID = 42;
const p: Point = { x: 1, y: 2 };
const box: Container<string> = { value: "hi" };
const onClick: Handler<string> = (e) => console.log(e);

// Union: value can be one of several types
type ID = string | number;

function display(id: ID) {
  if (typeof id === "string") {
    console.log(id.toUpperCase()); // narrowed to string
  } else {
    console.log(id.toFixed(2));    // narrowed to number
  }
}

display("abc");  // ABC
display(42);     // 42.00

// Union of arrays vs array of unions
type Mixed = (string | number)[];
type Either = string[] | number[];

// Intersection: combine multiple types into one
interface BusinessPartner {
  name: string;
  credit: number;
}

interface Identity {
  id: number;
  email: string;
}

type Employee = BusinessPartner & Identity;

const emp: Employee = {
  name: "Alice",
  credit: 1000,
  id: 1,
  email: "[email protected]",
};

// All properties required
// const bad: Employee = { name: "Bob" }; // Error: missing props

// In strict mode, null/undefined are separate types
let name: string | null = null;
name = "Alice";  // OK

// Optional parameters are implicitly | undefined
function greet(name?: string) {
  // name is string | undefined
  console.log(name ?? "Guest");
}

// Return type can be null
function find(id: number): string | null {
  return id === 1 ? "Alice" : null;
}

// Non-null assertion
const result = find(1)!.toUpperCase(); // "ALICE"

interface User {
  id: number;
  name: string;
  email: string;
}

// keyof: extract keys as a union
type UserKey = keyof User; // "id" | "name" | "email"

function getProp(obj: User, key: keyof User) {
  return obj[key];
}

// typeof: extract type from a value
const config = { port: 3000, host: "localhost" };
type Config = typeof config; // { port: number; host: string }

// keyof typeof: keys of an object
type ConfigKey = keyof typeof config; // "port" | "host"

// Map over keys to create a new type
type Readonly<T> = {
  readonly [K in keyof T]: T[K];
};

type Optional<T> = {
  [K in keyof T]?: T[K];
};

interface User { id: number; name: string; }

type ReadonlyUser = Readonly<User>;   // all readonly
type OptionalUser = Optional<User>;   // all optional

// Modifiers: +add, -remove
type Mutable<T> = { -readonly [K in keyof T]: T[K]; };
type Required<T> = { [K in keyof T]-?: T[K]; };

// Key remapping (TS 4.1+)
type Getters<T> = {
  [K in keyof T as `get${Capitalize<string & K>}`]: () => T[K];
};

// Named function with types
function add(a: number, b: number): number {
  return a + b;
}

// Arrow function with types
const multiply = (a: number, b: number): number => a * b;

// Function type alias
type MathOp = (a: number, b: number) => number;
const divide: MathOp = (a, b) => a / b;

// Void return (no return value)
function log(msg: string): void { console.log(msg); }

// Optional and default parameters
function greet(name: string, greeting: string = "Hi"): string {
  return `${greeting}, ${name}!`;
}
greet("Alice");        // "Hi, Alice!"
greet("Bob", "Hello"); // "Hello, Bob!"

// Rest parameters (variadic)
function sum(...nums: number[]): number {
  return nums.reduce((a, b) => a + b, 0);
}
console.log(sum(1, 2, 3, 4)); // 10

// Tuple rest (fixed prefix + variadic tail)
function pair(name: string, ...scores: number[]): void {
  console.log(name, scores);
}

// Spread call
const nums = [1, 2, 3];
console.log(sum(...nums));

// Typed rest as tuple
function f(...args: [string, number, boolean]): void {
  const [s, n, b] = args;
}

// Overload signatures (what callers see)
function parse(input: string): string[];
function parse(input: number): number[];
// Implementation signature (not visible to callers)
function parse(input: string | number): string[] | number[] {
  if (typeof input === "string") {
    return input.split(",");
  }
  return [input, input * 2];
}

const strs = parse("a,b,c"); // string[]
const nums = parse(42);      // number[]

// Overloads with different param counts
function makeDate(timestamp: number): Date;
function makeDate(y: number, m: number, d: number): Date;
function makeDate(yOrTs: number, m?: number, d?: number): Date {
  return m === undefined
    ? new Date(yOrTs)
    : new Date(yOrTs, m - 1, d);
}

interface Card {
  suit: string;
  rank: string;
  isFaceUp(): boolean;
}

// Explicit 'this' parameter
function format(this: Card): string {
  return `${this.rank} of ${this.suit}`;
}

const card: Card = {
  suit: "Hearts",
  rank: "A",
  isFaceUp() { return true; },
  format,
};

// 'this' in callbacks with bind
class Handler {
  private count = 0;
  increment = () => { this.count++; }; // arrow binds this
}

// Function as parameter
type Callback<T> = (value: T, index: number) => void;

function forEach<T>(arr: T[], cb: Callback<T>): void {
  for (let i = 0; i < arr.length; i++) {
    cb(arr[i], i);
  }
}

forEach(["a", "b"], (v, i) => console.log(i, v));

// Function returning function (curry)
function add(a: number): (b: number) => number {
  return (b) => a + b;
}
const add5 = add(5);
console.log(add5(3)); // 8

// Generic map
function map<T, U>(arr: T[], fn: (x: T) => U): U[] {
  return arr.map(fn);
}

// Destructured parameters with types
function createUser({ name, age, email }: {
  name: string;
  age: number;
  email?: string;
}): void {
  console.log(name, age, email);
}

createUser({ name: "Alice", age: 30 });

// Extract to interface for reuse
interface UserOpts {
  name: string;
  age: number;
  email?: string;
}

function updateUser({ name, age }: UserOpts): void {}

// Array destructuring in params
function swap([a, b]: [number, number]): [number, number] {
  return [b, a];
}

class Person {
  // Parameter properties (shorthand)
  constructor(
    public name: string,    // auto-creates this.name
    private age: number,    // private field
    readonly id: number,    // immutable
  ) {}

  greet(): string {
    return `Hi, I'm ${this.name}`;
  }
}

const p = new Person("Alice", 30, 1);
console.log(p.name);  // "Alice" (public)
// p.age; // Error: private
// p.id = 2; // Error: readonly

class BankAccount {
  public owner: string;       // accessible everywhere
  private balance: number;    // class only
  protected rate: number;     // class + subclasses
  readonly id: string;        // immutable after init
  #secret: string;            // ES private (runtime)

  constructor(owner: string) {
    this.owner = owner;
    this.balance = 0;
    this.rate = 0.05;
    this.id = crypto.randomUUID();
    this.#secret = "hidden";
  }

  deposit(amount: number): void {
    this.balance += amount;
  }
}

abstract class Shape {
  constructor(public color: string) {}
  abstract area(): number;  // must be implemented
  describe(): string {
    return `${this.color} shape, area ${this.area()}`;
  }
}

class Circle extends Shape {
  constructor(color: string, private r: number) {
    super(color);
  }
  area(): number { return Math.PI * this.r ** 2; }
}

class Square extends Shape {
  constructor(color: string, private side: number) {
    super(color);
  }
  area(): number { return this.side ** 2; }
}

const c = new Circle("red", 5);
console.log(c.describe()); // "red shape, area 78.54..."
// new Shape("blue"); // Error: cannot instantiate abstract

interface Printable {
  toString(): string;
}

interface Comparable<T> {
  compareTo(other: T): number;
}

class Money implements Printable, Comparable<Money> {
  constructor(private amount: number) {}

  toString(): string {
    return `$${this.amount.toFixed(2)}`;
  }

  compareTo(other: Money): number {
    return this.amount - other.amount;
  }
}

const a = new Money(10);
const b = new Money(20);
console.log(a.toString());      // "$10.00"
console.log(a.compareTo(b));    // -10

class Temperature {
  private _celsius: number = 0;

  get celsius(): number {
    return this._celsius;
  }

  set celsius(value: number) {
    if (value < -273.15) throw new Error("Below absolute zero");
    this._celsius = value;
  }

  get fahrenheit(): number {
    return this._celsius * 9 / 5 + 32;
  }

  set fahrenheit(value: number) {
    this.celsius = (value - 32) * 5 / 9;
  }
}

const temp = new Temperature();
temp.celsius = 25;
console.log(temp.fahrenheit); // 77
// temp.celsius = -300; // throws

class Logger {
  static instance: Logger;
  private logs: string[] = [];

  private constructor() {} // prevent direct new

  static getInstance(): Logger {
    if (!Logger.instance) {
      Logger.instance = new Logger();
    }
    return Logger.instance;
  }

  static readonly LEVELS = ["INFO", "WARN", "ERROR"] as const;

  log(msg: string): void {
    this.logs.push(msg);
  }
}

const logger = Logger.getInstance();
console.log(Logger.LEVELS); // ["INFO", "WARN", "ERROR"]
// new Logger(); // Error: private constructor

// Generic function: preserves type relationship
function identity<T>(value: T): T {
  return value;
}

const n = identity<number>(42);    // T = number, returns number
const s = identity("hi");          // T inferred as string

// Generic with multiple type params
function pair<A, B>(a: A, b: B): [A, B] {
  return [a, b];
}

const p = pair("Alice", 30); // [string, number]

// Generic with array
function first<T>(arr: T[]): T | undefined {
  return arr[0];
}

class Stack<T> {
  private items: T[] = [];

  push(item: T): void {
    this.items.push(item);
  }

  pop(): T | undefined {
    return this.items.pop();
  }

  peek(): T | undefined {
    return this.items[this.items.length - 1];
  }

  get size(): number {
    return this.items.length;
  }
}

const numStack = new Stack<number>();
numStack.push(1);
numStack.push(2);
console.log(numStack.pop()); // 2

const strStack = new Stack<string>();
strStack.push("hello");

// Constraint: T must have a 'length' property
interface HasLength {
  length: number;
}

function logLength<T extends HasLength>(item: T): void {
  console.log(item.length);
}

logLength("hello");     // 5 (string has length)
logLength([1, 2, 3]);   // 3 (array has length)
// logLength(42);        // Error: number has no length

// Constraint with keyof
function getProperty<T, K extends keyof T>(obj: T, key: K): T[K] {
  return obj[key];
}

const user = { name: "Alice", age: 30 };
const name = getProperty(user, "name"); // string
// getProperty(user, "email"); // Error: not a key

// Default type parameter
interface ApiResponse<T = string> {
  data: T;
  status: number;
}

const r1: ApiResponse = { data: "hello", status: 200 };       // T = string
const r2: ApiResponse<number> = { data: 42, status: 200 };    // T = number

// Multiple defaults
class Container<T = string, U = number> {
  constructor(public a: T, public b: U) {}
}

const c1 = new Container("hi", 42);      // Container<string, number>
const c2 = new Container<boolean>(true); // Container<boolean, number>

// Default with constraint
interface Box<T extends object = { id: number }> {
  value: T;
}

// Generic interface
interface Repository<T> {
  findById(id: string): Promise<T>;
  save(item: T): Promise<void>;
  delete(id: string): Promise<void>;
}

// Implement with concrete type
class UserRepo implements Repository<User> {
  async findById(id: string): Promise<User> { /* ... */ }
  async save(user: User): Promise<void> { /* ... */ }
  async delete(id: string): Promise<void> { /* ... */ }
}

// Generic type alias with conditional
type Result<T, E = Error> =
  | { ok: true; value: T }
  | { ok: false; error: E };

const success: Result<number> = { ok: true, value: 42 };
const failure: Result<string> = { ok: false, error: "not found" };

// Conditional type: if T extends U, use X, else Y
type IsString<T> = T extends string ? true : false;
type A = IsString<"hi">;   // true
type B = IsString<42>;     // false

// Extract return type
type AsyncReturnType<T> =
  T extends (...args: any[]) => Promise<infer R> ? R : never;

async function fetchUser(): Promise<User> { /* ... */ }
type U = AsyncReturnType<typeof fetchUser>; // User

// Distributive conditional types
type ToArray<T> = T extends any ? T[] : never;
type R = ToArray<string | number>; // string[] | number[]

// Exclude / Extract built on conditionals
type NonNullable<T> = T extends null | undefined ? never : T;

interface User {
  id: number;
  name: string;
  email: string;
  age: number;
}

// Partial: all optional (for updates)
type UserUpdate = Partial<User>;
const patch: UserUpdate = { name: "Bob" };

// Pick: select specific keys
type UserSummary = Pick<User, "id" | "name">;

// Omit: exclude specific keys
type CreateUser = Omit<User, "id">;

// Record: key-value map
type UserMap = Record<string, User>;

// Required: all required (remove ?)
type StrictUser = Required<Partial<User>>;

// ReturnType: function return type
type R = ReturnType<() => string>; // string

// Parameters: function parameter types as tuple
type P = Parameters<(a: number, b: string) => void>; // [number, string]

// Build string types from other types
type Vertical = "top" | "bottom";
type Horizontal = "left" | "right";
type Position = `${Vertical}-${Horizontal}`;
// "top-left" | "top-right" | "bottom-left" | "bottom-right"

// Uppercase, Lowercase, Capitalize, Uncapitalize
type Upper = Uppercase<"hello">; // "HELLO"
type Cap = Capitalize<"foo">;    // "Foo"

// Getter names from keys
type Getters<T> = {
  [K in keyof T as `get${Capitalize<string & K>}`]: () => T[K];
};

interface Person { name: string; age: number; }
type PersonGetters = Getters<Person>;
// { getName: () => string; getAge: () => number; }

// Event listener types
type EventName = `on${Capitalize<"click" | "hover">}`;
// "onClick" | "onHover"

// Extract return type of a function
type MyReturnType<T> =
  T extends (...args: any[]) => infer R ? R : never;

type R1 = MyReturnType<() => string>;    // string
type R2 = MyReturnType<(x: number) => boolean>; // boolean

// Extract element type of an array
type ElementOf<T> = T extends (infer E)[] ? E : never;
type E = ElementOf<string[]>;  // string

// Extract Promise value
type Unwrap<T> = T extends Promise<infer U> ? U : T;
type V = Unwrap<Promise<number>>; // number

// Extract first parameter
type FirstParam<T> =
  T extends (first: infer F, ...rest: any[]) => any ? F : never;
type FP = FirstParam<(name: string, age: number) => void>; // string

// Discriminated union: shared 'type' (or 'kind') field
type Action =
  | { type: "ADD_TODO"; text: string }
  | { type: "DELETE_TODO"; id: number }
  | { type: "TOGGLE_TODO"; id: number };

function reducer(state: Todo[], action: Action): Todo[] {
  switch (action.type) {
    case "ADD_TODO":
      return [...state, { id: Date.now(), text: action.text }];
    case "DELETE_TODO":
      return state.filter(t => t.id !== action.id);
    case "TOGGLE_TODO":
      return state.map(t =>
        t.id === action.id ? { ...t, done: !t.done } : t
      );
    default:
      const _: never = action; // exhaustiveness check
      return state;
  }
}

// typeof: narrow primitives
function process(value: string | number) {
  if (typeof value === "string") {
    return value.toUpperCase(); // string
  }
  return value.toFixed(2);      // number
}

// instanceof: narrow class instances
class Dog { bark() {} }
class Cat { meow() {} }

function speak(pet: Dog | Cat) {
  if (pet instanceof Dog) {
    pet.bark(); // Dog
  } else {
    pet.meow(); // Cat
  }
}

// Array.isArray
function flatten(arr: (number | number[])[]) {
  return arr.flatMap(x =>
    Array.isArray(x) ? x : [x]
  );
}

// 'in' operator: check for property existence
interface Fish { swim(): void; }
interface Bird { fly(): void; }

function move(animal: Fish | Bird) {
  if ("swim" in animal) {
    animal.swim(); // Fish
  } else {
    animal.fly(); // Bird
  }
}

// Type predicate: custom guard function
function isString(x: unknown): x is string {
  return typeof x === "string";
}

function isUser(x: any): x is { name: string; age: number } {
  return x && typeof x.name === "string" && typeof x.age === "number";
}

const val: unknown = "hello";
if (isString(val)) {
  console.log(val.toUpperCase()); // narrowed to string
}

// Typed arrays
let nums: number[] = [1, 2, 3];
let strs: Array<string> = ["a", "b", "c"];

// ReadonlyArray (immutable)
const frozen: readonly number[] = [1, 2, 3];
// frozen.push(4); // Error: readonly

// Tuple (fixed length)
let pair: [string, number] = ["Alice", 30];

// Array methods are typed
const doubled = nums.map(n => n * 2);    // number[]
const evens = nums.filter(n => n % 2 === 0); // number[]
const sum = nums.reduce((a, b) => a + b, 0); // number

// Spread and destructuring
const [first, ...rest] = nums;
const combined = [...nums, ...[4, 5]];

// Object type
const user: { name: string; age: number } = { name: "Alice", age: 30 };

// Record: typed key-value map
const scores: Record<string, number> = {
  math: 90,
  science: 85,
};

// Partial: all optional (for patches)
const patch: Partial<typeof user> = { age: 31 };

// Pick / Omit
type Summary = Pick<typeof user, "name">;
type WithoutAge = Omit<typeof user, "age">;

// Object.entries / keys / values typed
const entries = Object.entries(scores); // [string, number][]
const keys = Object.keys(scores);       // string[]
const values = Object.values(scores);   // number[]

// Map: keyed collection (any key type)
const map = new Map<string, User>();
map.set("alice", { name: "Alice", age: 30 });
const user = map.get("alice"); // User | undefined

// Set: unique values
const unique = new Set<number>([1, 2, 2, 3]);
console.log(unique.size); // 3
console.log(unique.has(2)); // true

// Iteration (typed)
for (const [key, value] of map) {
  console.log(key, value.name);
}

for (const num of unique) {
  console.log(num);
}

// WeakMap / WeakSet (keys must be objects, GC-friendly)
const weak = new WeakMap<object, string>();

// Basic tuple
let point: [number, number] = [10, 20];

// Labeled tuple (TS 4.0+)
let user: [id: number, name: string, active: boolean] = [1, "Alice", true];

// Destructuring with labels
const [id, name, active] = user;

// Tuple in function returns
function divmod(a: number, b: number): [quotient: number, remainder: number] {
  return [Math.floor(a / b), a % b];
}

const [q, r] = divmod(17, 5);
console.log(q, r); // 3 2

// Readonly tuple
const fixed: readonly [string, number] = ["a", 1];
// fixed.push(2); // Error

// Numeric enum
enum Direction { North = 0, South = 1, East = 2, West = 3 }

// String enum (recommended)
enum HttpStatus {
  OK = "200 OK",
  NotFound = "404 Not Found",
  ServerError = "500 Internal Server Error",
}

// Const enum (inlined at compile time)
const enum Color { Red, Green, Blue }
let c = Color.Red; // compiles to: let c = 0;

// Union type alternative (no runtime code)
type Status = "pending" | "success" | "error";
const s: Status = "pending";

// Exhaustive switch
function handle(s: Status) {
  switch (s) {
    case "pending": return "loading";
    case "success": return "done";
    case "error": return "failed";
  }
}

// Readonly modifier
interface User {
  readonly id: number;
  name: string;
}

// ReadonlyArray
const nums: ReadonlyArray<number> = [1, 2, 3];
// nums[0] = 9; // Error

// Readonly utility type
type FrozenUser = Readonly<User>;

// as const: deep readonly with literal types
const config = {
  endpoint: "/api",
  methods: ["GET", "POST"],
} as const;
// config.endpoint: "/api" (literal, not string)
// config.methods: readonly ["GET", "POST"]

// Immutable update pattern
const user = { name: "Alice", age: 30 };
const updated = { ...user, age: 31 }; // new object

// math.ts - exporting
export function add(a: number, b: number): number {
  return a + b;
}

export const PI = 3.14159;

export default function multiply(a: number, b: number): number {
  return a * b;
}

// main.ts - importing
import multiply, { add, PI } from "./math";
import * as math from "./math"; // namespace import

console.log(add(1, 2));      // 3
console.log(multiply(3, 4)); // 12 (default)
console.log(math.PI);        // 3.14159

// Type-only import (erased at runtime)
import type { User, Config } from "./types";

// Mixed import (TS 4.5+)
import { render, type Component } from "./ui";

// Re-export types
export type { User } from "./types";

// Import type for interfaces and types
interface UserService {
  get(id: string): User;  // User from type-only import
}

// 'import type' ensures no runtime dependency
// Useful when the module has side effects you want to avoid

// Dynamic import returns a Promise
async function loadModule() {
  const module = await import("./heavy-module");
  module.doWork();
}

// Conditional loading
if (featureEnabled) {
  const { Feature } = await import("./feature");
  new Feature().init();
}

// Type the dynamic import
type HeavyModule = typeof import("./heavy-module");

// With error handling
try {
  const lib = await import("./optional-lib");
  lib.run();
} catch (e) {
  console.log("Library not available");
}

// global.d.ts - declare ambient modules
declare module "*.css" {
  const content: string;
  export default content;
}

declare module "*.png" {
  const src: string;
  export default src;
}

// Module augmentation - extend existing types
import express from "express";

declare module "express" {
  interface Request {
    user?: { id: string; name: string };
  }
}

// Now req.user is typed
app.get("/", (req, res) => {
  console.log(req.user?.name);
});

// Namespace: pre-ES6 way to organize code
namespace Validation {
  export interface StringValidator {
    isValid(s: string): boolean;
  }

  const lettersRegexp = /^[A-Za-z]+$/;

  export class LettersOnlyValidator implements StringValidator {
    isValid(s: string): boolean {
      return lettersRegexp.test(s);
    }
  }
}

// Usage
const validator = new Validation.LettersOnlyValidator();
console.log(validator.isValid("Hello")); // true

// Prefer ES modules over namespaces for new code
// Namespaces are useful in .d.ts files for global declarations

{
  "compilerOptions": {
    "module": "ESNext",           // ES module output
    "moduleResolution": "node",   // Node-style resolution
    "esModuleInterop": true,      // allow default imports from CJS
    "allowSyntheticDefaultImports": true,
    "resolveJsonModule": true,    // import .json files
    "isolatedModules": true,      // each file is independent
    "baseUrl": "./src",           // base for non-relative imports
    "paths": {
      "@/*": ["./*"],             // path alias
      "@components/*": ["./components/*"]
    }
  }
}

// With paths config, you can import:
// import { Button } from "@/components/Button";
// instead of relative paths like "../../components/Button"

// Promise<T> represents an async value
function fetchUser(id: number): Promise<User> {
  return new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
    setTimeout(() => {
      if (id === 1) {
        resolve({ id: 1, name: "Alice" });
      } else {
        reject(new Error("User not found"));
      }
    }, 100);
  });
}

// Consuming a Promise
fetchUser(1)
  .then(user => console.log(user.name))
  .catch(err => console.error(err))
  .finally(() => console.log("done"));

// Promise typing: then callbacks are typed
fetchUser(1).then(user => {
  // user is User, not any
  console.log(user.name); // string
});

// async function returns Promise<T>
async function getUser(id: number): Promise<User> {
  const response = await fetch(`/api/users/${id}`);
  if (!response.ok) {
    throw new Error(`HTTP ${response.status}`);
  }
  return response.json() as Promise<User>;
}

// Top-level await (ES2022, TS 4.7+)
// const user = await getUser(1);

// Sequential vs parallel
async function loadAll() {
  // Sequential (slow)
  const a = await getUser(1);
  const b = await getUser(2);

  // Parallel (fast)
  const [x, y] = await Promise.all([getUser(1), getUser(2)]);
  return { a, b, x, y };
}

// Try/catch with async/await
async function riskyOperation(): Promise<string> {
  try {
    const data = await fetch("/api/data");
    if (!data.ok) throw new Error(`HTTP ${data.status}`);
    return await data.text();
  } catch (error) {
    if (error instanceof Error) {
      console.error(error.message);
    }
    return "fallback";
  } finally {
    console.log("cleanup");
  }
}

// Typed errors (TypeScript doesn't have typed throws)
class ApiError extends Error {
  constructor(public status: number, message: string) {
    super(message);
  }
}

// Result type as alternative to exceptions
type Result<T> =
  | { ok: true; value: T }
  | { ok: false; error: string };

async function safeFetch(url: string): Promise<Result<string>> {
  try {
    const res = await fetch(url);
    return { ok: true, value: await res.text() };
  } catch (e) {
    return { ok: false, error: String(e) };
  }
}

// Promise.all: wait for all (rejects if any rejects)
const [users, posts] = await Promise.all([
  fetchUsers(),
  fetchPosts(),
]);

// Promise.allSettled: wait for all (never rejects)
const results = await Promise.allSettled([
  fetch("/api/a"),
  fetch("/api/b"),
]);
results.forEach(r => {
  if (r.status === "fulfilled") console.log(r.value);
  else console.log(r.reason);
});

// Promise.race: first to settle (resolve or reject)
const fastest = await Promise.race([
  fetch("/api/fast"),
  fetch("/api/slow"),
]);

// Promise.any: first to resolve (ignores rejections)
const first = await Promise.any([
  fetch("/api/primary"),
  fetch("/api/fallback"),
]);

// Microtasks (Promises) run before macrotasks (setTimeout)
console.log("1: sync");

setTimeout(() => console.log("4: macrotask"), 0);

Promise.resolve().then(() => console.log("3: microtask"));

console.log("2: sync");
// Output: 1, 2, 3, 4

// queueMicrotask for custom microtasks
queueMicrotask(() => console.log("microtask"));

// Async iteration (for await)
async function processStream(stream: AsyncIterable<Buffer>) {
  for await (const chunk of stream) {
    console.log(chunk.length);
  }
}

// Async generators
async function* generate() {
  for (let i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
    await new Promise(r => setTimeout(r, 100));
    yield i;
  }
}

// Debounce with TypeScript
function debounce<T extends (...args: any[]) => void>(
  fn: T,
  delay: number
): (...args: Parameters<T>) => void {
  let timer: ReturnType<typeof setTimeout>;
  return (...args) => {
    clearTimeout(timer);
    timer = setTimeout(() => fn(...args), delay);
  };
}

// Throttle
function throttle<T extends (...args: any[]) => void>(
  fn: T,
  limit: number
): (...args: Parameters<T>) => void {
  let inThrottle = false;
  return (...args) => {
    if (!inThrottle) {
      fn(...args);
      inThrottle = true;
      setTimeout(() => (inThrottle = false), limit);
    }
  };
}

// Semaphore (limit concurrency)
async function mapLimit<T, U>(
  items: T[],
  limit: number,
  fn: (item: T) => Promise<U>
): Promise<U[]> {
  const results: U[] = [];
  const executing: Promise<void>[] = [];
  for (const item of items) {
    const p = fn(item).then(r => results.push(r));
    executing.push(p);
    if (executing.length >= limit) {
      await Promise.race(executing);
      executing.splice(executing.findIndex(e => e === p), 1);
    }
  }
  await Promise.all(executing);
  return results;
}

// In strict mode, catch is 'unknown' (not 'any')
try {
  JSON.parse("invalid");
} catch (error: unknown) {
  // Must narrow before using
  if (error instanceof SyntaxError) {
    console.error("JSON error:", error.message);
  } else if (error instanceof Error) {
    console.error(error.message);
  } else {
    console.error("Unknown error:", error);
  }
}

// Helper function
function getErrorMessage(error: unknown): string {
  if (error instanceof Error) return error.message;
  return String(error);
}

class AppError extends Error {
  constructor(
    message: string,
    public code: string,
    public statusCode: number = 500
  ) {
    super(message);
    this.name = "AppError";
    // Fix prototype chain (TS quirk)
    Object.setPrototypeOf(this, AppError.prototype);
  }
}

class ValidationError extends AppError {
  constructor(message: string, public field: string) {
    super(message, "VALIDATION_ERROR", 400);
    this.name = "ValidationError";
  }
}

// Usage
function createUser(input: unknown) {
  if (typeof input !== "object" || input === null) {
    throw new ValidationError("Invalid input", "body");
  }
}

try {
  createUser("bad");
} catch (e) {
  if (e instanceof ValidationError) {
    console.log(e.field, e.statusCode); // "body" 400
  }
}

// Result type: explicit error handling without exceptions
type Result<T, E = string> =
  | { ok: true; value: T }
  | { ok: false; error: E };

function divide(a: number, b: number): Result<number> {
  if (b === 0) {
    return { ok: false, error: "Division by zero" };
  }
  return { ok: true, value: a / b };
}

// Usage: forced to handle both cases
const result = divide(10, 0);
if (result.ok) {
  console.log(result.value); // number
} else {
  console.error(result.error); // string
}

// Utility helpers
function ok<T>(value: T): Result<T, never> {
  return { ok: true, value };
}

function err<E>(error: E): Result<never, E> {
  return { ok: false, error };
}

// Assertion function: throws if condition is false
function assert(condition: unknown, message: string): asserts condition {
  if (!condition) {
    throw new Error(message);
  }
}

// Assert value is a specific type
function assertString(value: unknown): asserts value is string {
  if (typeof value !== "string") {
    throw new Error(`Expected string, got ${typeof value}`);
  }
}

// Usage: narrows type after assertion
const input: unknown = "hello";
assertString(input);
console.log(input.toUpperCase()); // input is now string

// Assert non-null
function assertDefined<T>(value: T | undefined): asserts value is T {
  if (value === undefined) throw new Error("undefined");
}

// Safe JSON parse with type guard
function safeParse<T>(json: string, guard: (x: unknown) => x is T): T | null {
  try {
    const parsed: unknown = JSON.parse(json);
    if (guard(parsed)) return parsed;
    return null;
  } catch {
    return null;
  }
}

// Type guard for User
interface User { id: number; name: string; }
function isUser(x: unknown): x is User {
  return typeof x === "object" && x !== null
    && typeof (x as User).id === "number"
    && typeof (x as User).name === "string";
}

const data = safeParse('{"id":1,"name":"Alice"}', isUser);
if (data) {
  console.log(data.name); // User
}

// Using Zod for runtime validation
// import { z } from "zod";
// const UserSchema = z.object({ id: z.number(), name: z.string() });
// const user = UserSchema.parse(JSON.parse(json));

type Shape =
  | { kind: "circle"; radius: number }
  | { kind: "square"; size: number }
  | { kind: "rectangle"; w: number; h: number };

function area(shape: Shape): number {
  switch (shape.kind) {
    case "circle":
      return Math.PI * shape.radius ** 2;
    case "square":
      return shape.size ** 2;
    case "rectangle":
      return shape.w * shape.h;
    default:
      // If a new shape is added, this errors
      const _exhaustive: never = shape;
      return _exhaustive;
  }
}

// Adding a new variant:
// | { kind: "triangle"; base: number; height: number }
// Now the default case errors: Type 'triangle' is not assignable to 'never'

// Class decorator: receives the constructor
function Logged<T extends new (...args: any[]) => any>(target: T): T {
  return class extends target {
    constructor(...args: any[]) {
      super(...args);
      console.log(`Created ${target.name}`);
    }
  };
}

@Logged
class Service {
  constructor(public name: string) {}
}

const s = new Service("Auth");
// Logs: "Created Service"

// Decorator factory (with arguments)
function Prefix(prefix: string) {
  return function <T extends new (...args: any[]) => any>(target: T): T {
    return class extends target {
      message = prefix + " " + (this as any).name;
    };
  };
}

// Method decorator: (target, key, descriptor)
function Log(
  target: any,
  propertyKey: string,
  descriptor: PropertyDescriptor
) {
  const original = descriptor.value;
  descriptor.value = function (...args: any[]) {
    console.log(`Calling ${propertyKey}(${args})`);
    return original.apply(this, args);
  };
}

class Calculator {
  @Log
  add(a: number, b: number): number {
    return a + b;
  }
}

new Calculator().add(2, 3);
// Logs: "Calling add(2,3)"

// Property decorator: (target, key)
function Required(target: any, key: string) {
  // Store metadata for validation
  console.log(`Required: ${key}`);
}

import "reflect-metadata";

// Parameter decorator
function Inject(target: any, key: string, index: number) {
  console.log(`Inject param ${index} of ${key}`);
}

class Service {
  constructor(@Inject private dep: any) {}
}

// Store and retrieve metadata
const METADATA_KEY = "design:type";

class Example {
  greet(name: string): void {}
}

// reflect-metadata provides:
// - design:type (property type)
// - design:paramtypes (method parameter types)
// - design:returntype (method return type)

const types = Reflect.getMetadata("design:paramtypes", Example.prototype, "greet");
// types: [String]

// Accessor decorator (getter/setter)
function Enumerable(value: boolean) {
  return function (
    target: any,
    key: string,
    descriptor: PropertyDescriptor
  ) {
    descriptor.enumerable = value;
  };
}

class Person {
  private _name: string = "";

  @Enumerable(true)
  get name(): string {
    return this._name;
  }

  set name(value: string) {
    this._name = value;
  }
}

const p = new Person();
p.name = "Alice";
console.log(Object.keys(p)); // ["name"] (enumerable)

// Validation decorator
function MaxLength(len: number) {
  return function (target: any, key: string) {
    let value: string;
    Object.defineProperty(target, key, {
      get() { return value; },
      set(v: string) {
        if (v.length > len) throw new Error("Too long");
        value = v;
      },
    });
  };
}

// TC39 Stage 3 decorators (TS 5.0+, no experimentalDecorators needed)
// Uses a different API: context object

function log<This, Args extends any[], Return>(
  target: (this: This, ...args: Args) => Return,
  context: ClassMethodDecoratorContext<This, (this: This, ...args: Args) => Return>
) {
  return function (this: This, ...args: Args): Return {
    console.log(`Calling ${String(context.name)}`);
    return target.call(this, ...args);
  };
}

class Service {
  @log
  greet(name: string): string {
    return `Hello, ${name}`;
  }
}

// Class method decorator context provides:
// - name: property name
// - kind: "method" | "field" | "class"
// - access: { get(), set(value) } for fields
// - addInitializer(): run code after construction

// Memoize: cache method results
function Memoize<This, Args extends any[], Return>(
  target: (this: This, ...args: Args) => Return,
  context: ClassMethodDecoratorContext
) {
  const cache = new Map<string, Return>();
  return function (this: This, ...args: Args): Return {
    const key = JSON.stringify(args);
    if (cache.has(key)) return cache.get(key)!;
    const result = target.call(this, ...args);
    cache.set(key, result);
    return result;
  };
}

class MathService {
  @Memoize
  fibonacci(n: number): number {
    if (n < 2) return n;
    return this.fibonacci(n - 1) + this.fibonacci(n - 2);
  }
}

const svc = new MathService();
console.time("first");
console.log(svc.fibonacci(40)); // slow
console.timeEnd("first");

console.time("second");
console.log(svc.fibonacci(40)); // fast (cached)
console.timeEnd("second");

interface User {
  id: number;
  name: string;
  email: string;
}

// Partial<T>: all properties become optional
type UserUpdate = Partial<User>;
// { id?: number; name?: string; email?: string }

function updateUser(id: number, changes: UserUpdate) {
  // Only provided fields are updated
  Object.assign(users[id], changes);
}
updateUser(1, { name: "Alice" }); // OK — only name

// Required<T>: all properties become required (inverse of Partial)
type StrictUser = Required<Partial<User>>; // back to all required

// Readonly<T>: all properties become readonly
type FrozenUser = Readonly<User>;
const frozen: FrozenUser = { id: 1, name: "Alice", email: "[email protected]" };
// frozen.name = "Bob"; // Error: readonly

// Practical: immutable config objects
const config: Readonly<Config> = { /* ... */ };
// config.port = 8081; // Error — prevents accidental mutation

interface User {
  id: number;
  name: string;
  email: string;
  role: string;
  createdAt: Date;
}

// Pick<T, Keys>: select specific properties
type UserSummary = Pick<User, "id" | "name">;
// { id: number; name: string }

// Omit<T, Keys>: remove specific properties
type UserInput = Omit<User, "id" | "createdAt">;
// { name: string; email: string; role: string }

// Record<Keys, Value>: object with specific keys and value type
type UserRole = "admin" | "user" | "guest";
type Permissions = Record<UserRole, string[]>;
const perms: Permissions = {
  admin: ["read", "write", "delete"],
  user: ["read", "write"],
  guest: ["read"],
};

// Combining: create a DTO from a full entity
type UserDTO = Pick<User, "id" | "name" | "email">;
type CreateUserDTO = Omit<User, "id" | "createdAt">;

function fetchUser(id: number): Promise<{ name: string; age: number }> {
  return Promise.resolve({ name: "Alice", age: 30 });
}

// ReturnType<T>: the return type of a function
type FetchResult = ReturnType<typeof fetchUser>;
// Promise<{ name: string; age: number }>

// Awaited<T>: unwrap a Promise to its inner type
type User = Awaited<ReturnType<typeof fetchUser>>;
// { name: string; age: number }

// Parameters<T>: tuple of parameter types
type FetchParams = Parameters<typeof fetchUser>;
// [id: number]

// First parameter type
type FirstParam = Parameters<typeof fetchUser>[0]; // number

// ConstructorParameters<T>: parameters of a class constructor
class Point {
  constructor(public x: number, public y: number) {}
}
type PointArgs = ConstructorParameters<typeof Point>; // [x: number, y: number]

// InstanceType<T>: the instance type of a constructor
type PointInstance = InstanceType<typeof Point>; // Point

type Role = "admin" | "user" | "guest" | "superadmin";

// Exclude<T, U>: remove types from a union
type NonAdmin = Exclude<Role, "admin" | "superadmin">;
// "user" | "guest"

// Extract<T, U>: keep only matching types from a union
type AdminRoles = Extract<Role, "admin" | "superadmin">;
// "admin" | "superadmin"

// NonNullable<T>: remove null and undefined
type MaybeUser = User | null | undefined;
type DefiniteUser = NonNullable<MaybeUser>; // User

// Practical: filter union types
type EventMap = {
  click: MouseEvent;
  keydown: KeyboardEvent;
  scroll: UIEvent;
};
type EventName = keyof EventMap; // "click" | "keydown" | "scroll"

// Omit<T, K> is actually built from Pick and Exclude:
// type Omit<T, K> = Pick<T, Exclude<keyof T, K>>;

// Make specific properties optional
type Optional<T, K extends keyof T> = Omit<T, K> & Partial<Pick<T, K>>;

interface User {
  id: number;
  name: string;
  email: string;
}
type UserWithOptionalEmail = Optional<User, "email">;
// { id: number; name: string; email?: string }

// Make specific properties required
type Require<T, K extends keyof T> = Omit<T, K> & Required<Pick<T, K>>;

// Deep partial (recursively make all properties optional)
type DeepPartial<T> = {
  [P in keyof T]?: T[P] extends object ? DeepPartial<T[P]> : T[P];
};

// Deep readonly
type DeepReadonly<T> = {
  readonly [P in keyof T]: T[P] extends object ? DeepReadonly<T[P]> : T[P];
};

// Mutable (remove readonly from all properties)
type Mutable<T> = {
  -readonly [P in keyof T]: T[P];
};

// Non-never keys (filter out never-valued properties)
type NonNeverKeys<T> = {
  [K in keyof T]: T[K] extends never ? never : K;
}[keyof T];

// Conditional types choose a type based on a condition
// Syntax: T extends U ? X : Y

// Is T an array? Return its element type, else never
type ElementOf<T> = T extends (infer E)[] ? E : never;

type A = ElementOf<string[]>;    // string
type B = ElementOf<number[]>;    // number
type C = ElementOf<string>;      // never (not an array)

// Is T a Promise? Unwrap it, else keep T
type UnwrapPromise<T> = T extends Promise<infer U> ? U : T;

type D = UnwrapPromise<Promise<number>>;  // number
type E = UnwrapPromise<string>;           // string (not a promise)

// Check if a type is a function
type IsFunction<T> = T extends (...args: any[]) => any ? true : false;

type F = IsFunction<() => void>;  // true
type G = IsFunction<number>;      // false

// Conditional types are evaluated lazily and distribute over unions

// infer extracts a type from within a pattern

// Get the return type of a function (like ReturnType<T>)
type MyReturnType<T> = T extends (...args: any[]) => infer R ? R : never;

// Get the first parameter type
type FirstArg<T> = T extends (first: infer F, ...rest: any[]) => any ? F : never;
type FA = FirstArg<(name: string, age: number) => void>; // string

// Get the resolved value of a Promise (like Awaited)
type Unwrap<T> = T extends Promise<infer U> ? Unwrap<U> : T;
type Deep = Unwrap<Promise<Promise<Promise<number>>>>; // number (recursive!)

// Extract the value type from a Map
type MapValue<M> = M extends Map<any, infer V> ? V : never;
type MV = MapValue<Map<string, number>>; // number

// Extract element type from Set
type SetElement<S> = S extends Set<infer E> ? E : never;

// Get the instance type from a constructor
type Instance<T> = T extends new (...args: any[]) => infer I ? I : never;

// Conditional types DISTRIBUTE over unions
// T extends U ? X : Y  applied to  A | B  becomes
// (A extends U ? X : Y) | (B extends U ? X : Y)

type ToArray<T> = T extends any ? T[] : never;

type Result = ToArray<string | number>;
// ToArray<string> | ToArray<number>
// = string[] | number[]

// WITHOUT distribution (wrap in brackets to prevent):
type ToArrayNonDist<T> = [T] extends [any] ? T[] : never;
type Result2 = ToArrayNonDist<string | number>;
// (string | number)[]  — a single array of the union

// Practical: filter out types from a union
type ExcludeNull<T> = T extends null | undefined ? never : T;
type Cleaned = ExcludeNull<string | null | number | undefined>;
// string | number  (null and undefined filtered out)

// This is exactly how NonNullable<T> works:
// type NonNullable<T> = T extends null | undefined ? never : T;

// Use conditional types to constrain and derive types

// Get the props type of a React component
type PropsOf<C> = C extends React.ComponentType<infer P> ? P : never;
type ButtonProps = PropsOf<typeof Button>; // the component's prop type

// Conditional with multiple branches (nested)
type TypeName<T> =
  T extends string ? "string" :
  T extends number ? "number" :
  T extends boolean ? "boolean" :
  T extends undefined ? "undefined" :
  T extends Function ? "function" :
  "object";

type T1 = TypeName<string>;     // "string"
type T2 = TypeName<() => void>; // "function"
type T3 = TypeName<{}>;         // "object"

// Constraint + conditional: only allow arrays, get element type
function firstElement<T extends any[]>(arr: T): T extends (infer E)[] ? E : never {
  return arr[0] as any;
}
const x: number = firstElement([1, 2, 3]); // number

// Template literal types: type-level string operations

type Greeting = `Hello ${string}`;
const g: Greeting = "Hello World"; // OK
// const bad: Greeting = "Hi World"; // Error

// Uppercase, Lowercase, Capitalize, Uncapitalize
type Upper = Uppercase<"hello">; // "HELLO"
type Lower = Lowercase<"WORLD">; // "world"
type Cap = Capitalize<"foo">;    // "Foo"

// Build event handler names from event names
type EventName = "click" | "focus" | "blur";
type HandlerName = `on${Capitalize<EventName>}`;
// "onClick" | "onFocus" | "onBlur"

// Extract route parameters
type ExtractParams<Path extends string> =
  Path extends `${infer _Start}/${infer Param}/${infer Rest}`
    ? Param | ExtractParams<`/${Rest}`>
    : Path extends `${infer _Start}/${infer Param}`
    ? Param
    : never;

type Params = ExtractParams<"/users/:id/posts/:postId">;
// ":id" | ":postId"

// Property accessor type: "a.b.c" -> nested type
type Get<T, P extends string> =
  P extends `${infer Key}.${infer Rest}`
    ? Key extends keyof T ? Get<T[Key], Rest> : never
    : P extends keyof T ? T[P] : never;

// Mapped types transform each property of an existing type

// Make all properties optional (like Partial<T>)
type MyPartial<T> = {
  [K in keyof T]?: T[K];
};

// Make all properties readonly (like Readonly<T>)
type MyReadonly<T> = {
  readonly [K in keyof T]: T[K];
};

// Make all properties nullable
type Nullable<T> = {
  [K in keyof T]: T[K] | null;
};

interface User {
  id: number;
  name: string;
  email: string;
}

type NullableUser = Nullable<User>;
// { id: number | null; name: string | null; email: string | null }

// Change all property types to a specific type
type Stringify<T> = {
  [K in keyof T]: string;
};
type StringUser = Stringify<User>;
// { id: string; name: string; email: string }

// Remap keys using 'as' (TypeScript 4.1+)

// Add a prefix to all keys
type Prefix<T, P extends string> = {
  [K in keyof T as `${P}${Capitalize<string & K>}`]: T[K];
};

interface User {
  id: number;
  name: string;
}
type PrefixedUser = Prefix<User, "user">;
// { userId: number; userName: string }

// Convert keys to getters
type Getters<T> = {
  [K in keyof T as `get${Capitalize<string & K>}`]: () => T[K];
};
type UserGetters = Getters<User>;
// { getId: () => number; getName: () => string }

// Filter out keys by returning never
type RemoveKindField<T> = {
  [K in keyof T as Exclude<K, "kind">]: T[K];
};
type WithoutKind = RemoveKindField<{ kind: "circle"; radius: number }>;
// { radius: number }

// Make keys UPPERCASE
type UpperKeys<T> = {
  [K in keyof T as Uppercase<string & K>]: T[K];
};

// Add (+) or remove (-) modifiers

// Remove optional (?) modifier: -?
type Concrete<T> = {
  [K in keyof T]-?: T[K];
};

interface OptionalUser {
  id?: number;
  name?: string;
}
type RequiredUser = Concrete<OptionalUser>;
// { id: number; name: string } — all required now

// Remove readonly modifier: -readonly
type Mutable<T> = {
  -readonly [K in keyof T]: T[K];
};

interface FrozenConfig {
  readonly port: number;
  readonly host: string;
}
type EditableConfig = Mutable<FrozenConfig>;
// { port: number; host: string } — mutable now

// Add readonly modifier: +readonly (or just readonly)
type Freeze<T> = {
  +readonly [K in keyof T]: T[K];
};

// Add optional modifier: +?
type MakeOptional<T> = {
  [K in keyof T]+?: T[K];
};

// Homomorphic mapped types preserve modifiers from the original type

interface User {
  readonly id: number;
  name: string;
  email?: string;
}

// Homomorphic: [K in keyof T] — preserves readonly and ?
type Clone<T> = {
  [K in keyof T]: T[K];
};
type ClonedUser = Clone<User>;
// { readonly id: number; name: string; email?: string }
// Modifiers are PRESERVED from User

// Non-homomorphic: doesn't preserve modifiers
type NonHomo<T> = {
  [K in string]: T; // not keyof T — loses modifiers
};

// Pick is homomorphic — preserves modifiers
type UserPick = Pick<User, "id" | "name">;
// { readonly id: number; name: string } — readonly preserved!

// Practical: create a "patch" type that preserves optionality
type Patch<T> = {
  [K in keyof T]?: T[K]; // Partial is homomorphic
};

// Practical: derive a validator type from a data type

// Given a data interface
interface User {
  id: number;
  name: string;
  email: string;
}

// Create a validator type where each field is a validation function
type Validator<T> = {
  [K in keyof T]: (value: T[K]) => boolean;
};

const userValidator: Validator<User> = {
  id: (v) => v > 0,
  name: (v) => v.length > 0,
  email: (v) => v.includes("@"),
};

// Create a form type where fields are wrapped in a FormField
type FormField<T> = {
  value: T;
  error: string | null;
  touched: boolean;
};

type Form<T> = {
  [K in keyof T]: FormField<T[K]>;
};

const userForm: Form<User> = {
  id: { value: 1, error: null, touched: false },
  name: { value: "Alice", error: null, touched: true },
  email: { value: "", error: "Required", touched: true },
};

// The form type is always in sync with User — add a field to
// User and the form type automatically requires it too.

// typeof narrows primitive types
function padLeft(value: string | number, padding: string | number) {
  if (typeof padding === "number") {
    return " ".repeat(padding) + value;
    // padding is narrowed to 'number' here
  }
  return padding + value;
  // padding is narrowed to 'string' here
}

// instanceof narrows class types
class Cat { meow(): void {} }
class Dog { bark(): void {} }

function speak(animal: Cat | Dog) {
  if (animal instanceof Cat) {
    animal.meow(); // OK — narrowed to Cat
  } else {
    animal.bark(); // OK — narrowed to Dog
  }
}

// typeof returns: "string" | "number" | "boolean" | "symbol"
//   "bigint" | "undefined" | "object" | "function"
// Note: typeof null === "object" (historical JS bug)

// Truthiness narrowing
function process(value?: string) {
  if (value) {
    console.log(value.toUpperCase()); // value is string (not undefined)
  }
}

// 'in' operator checks for a property — narrows to types that have it

interface Fish { swim(): void; }
interface Bird { fly(): void; }

function move(animal: Fish | Bird) {
  if ("swim" in animal) {
    animal.swim(); // narrowed to Fish
  } else {
    animal.fly(); // narrowed to Bird
  }
}

// Discriminated unions: a shared literal property (the 'discriminant')
type Shape =
  | { kind: "circle"; radius: number }
  | { kind: "square"; size: number }
  | { kind: "rectangle"; width: number; height: number };

function area(shape: Shape): number {
  switch (shape.kind) {
    case "circle":
      return Math.PI * shape.radius ** 2; // narrowed by kind
    case "square":
      return shape.size ** 2;
    case "rectangle":
      return shape.width * shape.height;
  }
}

// Discriminated unions are the idiomatic TS pattern for
// variant data (like Redux actions, AST nodes, API responses)

// A type guard function has a special return type: 'x is Type'
// It narrows the type when it returns true

interface User {
  id: number;
  name: string;
}

function isUser(obj: any): obj is User {
  return (
    typeof obj === "object" &&
    obj !== null &&
    typeof obj.id === "number" &&
    typeof obj.name === "string"
  );
}

const data: unknown = JSON.parse('{"id": 1, "name": "Alice"}');

if (isUser(data)) {
  console.log(data.name); // data is narrowed to User
}

// Type guard for arrays
function isStringArray(arr: unknown): arr is string[] {
  return Array.isArray(arr) && arr.every((x) => typeof x === "string");
}

// Type guard for discriminated unions
type Result<T> =
  | { success: true; data: T }
  | { success: false; error: string };

function isSuccess<T>(r: Result<T>): r is { success: true; data: T } {
  return r.success;
}

// Assertion functions (TS 3.7+): throw if condition fails
function assertDefined<T>(value: T | null | undefined): asserts value is T {
  if (value === null || value === undefined) {
    throw new Error("Expected value to be defined");
  }
}

// The 'never' type ensures all cases are handled

type Shape =
  | { kind: "circle"; radius: number }
  | { kind: "square"; size: number };

function area(shape: Shape): number {
  switch (shape.kind) {
    case "circle":
      return Math.PI * shape.radius ** 2;
    case "square":
      return shape.size ** 2;
    default:
      // If we add a new shape but forget a case, this line
      // becomes a compile error because 'shape' would not be 'never'
      const _exhaustive: never = shape;
      return _exhaustive;
  }
}

// Adding a new variant without updating area():
// type Shape = ... | { kind: "triangle"; base: number; height: number }
// Error: Type '{ kind: "triangle"; ... }' is not assignable to type 'never'

// Helper function pattern
function assertNever(x: never): never {
  throw new Error("Unexpected: " + JSON.stringify(x));
}

function process(shape: Shape) {
  switch (shape.kind) {
    case "circle": return;
    case "square": return;
    default: return assertNever(shape); // compile error if a case is missing
  }
}

// TypeScript narrows through filter, map, and control flow

interface Pet {
  name: string;
  speak(): void;
}

class Dog implements Pet {
  name = "Rex";
  speak() { console.log("Woof"); }
  fetch() { console.log("Fetching!"); }
}

class Cat implements Pet {
  name = "Whiskers";
  speak() { console.log("Meow"); }
}

const pets: Pet[] = [new Dog(), new Cat(), new Dog()];

// filter doesn't narrow by default (callback return type is boolean)
// Use a type guard to narrow:
function isDog(pet: Pet): pet is Dog {
  return pet instanceof Dog;
}

const dogs = pets.filter(isDog); // Dog[] — properly narrowed!
dogs.forEach((d) => d.fetch()); // OK — d is Dog

// Narrowing in forEach/callbacks
pets.forEach((pet) => {
  if (isDog(pet)) {
    pet.fetch(); // narrowed to Dog inside callback
  }
});

// Array.isArray narrows 'unknown' to an array
function process(input: unknown) {
  if (Array.isArray(input)) {
    input.length; // OK — input is any[] (or unknown[])
  }
}

// TypeScript infers types when you don't annotate

// Variable inference
let count = 0;          // number
let name = "Alice";     // string
let items = [1, 2, 3];  // number[]
let mixed = [1, "two"]; // (string | number)[]

// Function return type inference
function add(a: number, b: number) {
  return a + b; // return type inferred as number
}

// const assertions for literal types
const x = 10;        // number (widened)
const y = "hello";   // string (widened)
const z = { a: 1 };  // { a: number }

const x2 = 10 as const;       // 10 (literal type)
const y2 = "hello" as const;  // "hello" (literal type)
const z2 = { a: 1 } as const; // { readonly a: 10 }

// Array with 'as const' becomes a readonly tuple
const colors = ["red", "green", "blue"] as const;
// readonly ["red", "green", "blue"]
type Color = typeof colors[number]; // "red" | "green" | "blue"

// Contextual typing: the expected type influences the inferred type

// Without context, the parameter type is unknown
window.onmousedown = (mouseEvent) => {
  // mouseEvent is inferred as MouseEvent (from onmousedown's type)
  console.log(mouseEvent.button);
};

// Array map: callback params inferred from array type
const nums = [1, 2, 3];
const doubled = nums.map((n) => n * 2); // n is number, result is number[]

// Contextual typing for object literals
interface User {
  name: string;
  age: number;
}
const user: User = {
  name: "Alice", // inferred as string (from User.name)
  age: 30,
};

// Contextual typing with discriminated unions
type Event =
  | { type: "click"; x: number; y: number }
  | { type: "scroll"; scrollTop: number };

function handle(e: Event) {
  if (e.type === "click") {
    console.log(e.x, e.y); // narrowed
  }
}

// Best practice: let inference work for you — don't over-annotate
const nums2 = [1, 2, 3].map((n) => n * 2); // number[] — no annotation needed

// When inferring from multiple values, TS finds the best common type

// Array of same type: inferred as that type
const nums = [1, 2, 3]; // number[]

// Array of different types: inferred as union
const mixed = [1, "two", true]; // (string | number | boolean)[]

// Array of subclasses: inferred as the common supertype
class Animal { name: string; }
class Dog extends Animal { bark(): void {} }
class Cat extends Animal { meow(): void {} }

const pets = [new Dog(), new Cat()]; // Animal[] (not (Dog | Cat)[])

// To get a union instead, use an explicit type annotation:
const pets2: (Dog | Cat)[] = [new Dog(), new Cat()];

// Or use 'as const' for readonly tuples:
const tuple = [new Dog(), new Cat()] as const;
// readonly [Dog, Cat]

// Return type inference with conditionals
function getValue(flag: boolean) {
  return flag ? 42 : "hello"; // inferred as number | string
}

// TypeScript tracks types through control flow

function example(value: string | number | null) {
  // After this check, 'value' is string | number in this branch
  if (value === null) {
    return;
  }

  // value is now string | number (null narrowed out)
  console.log(value);

  if (typeof value === "string") {
    return value.toUpperCase(); // value is string
  }

  // value is now number (string and null narrowed out)
  return value.toFixed(2);
}

// Narrowing through assignments
let x: string | number;
x = "hello";
console.log(x.toUpperCase()); // x is string
x = 42;
console.log(x.toFixed(2)); // x is number

// Narrowing with && and ||
function process(input?: string) {
  const value = input && input.trim(); // string | undefined
  const safe = input || "default"; // string (undefined narrowed out)
}

// Narrowing is reset when a variable is reassigned
let v: string | number = "hi";
v.toUpperCase(); // string
v = 42;
// v.toUpperCase(); // Error: number doesn't have toUpperCase

// 'satisfies' checks a value matches a type WITHOUT widening it

// Problem: annotation widens the type
const config1: Record<string, string | number> = {
  port: 8080,
  host: "localhost",
};
// config1.port is 'string | number' (widened — lost the literal)

// Solution: 'satisfies' validates but preserves the inferred type
const config2 = {
  port: 8080,
  host: "localhost",
} satisfies Record<string, string | number>;
// config2.port is 'number' (preserved!) but still validated

// Practical: type-safe route configs
type Routes = Record<string, { method: string; handler: () => void }>;

const routes = {
  "/users": { method: "GET", handler: () => fetchUsers() },
  "/posts": { method: "POST", handler: () => createPost() },
} satisfies Routes;

routes["/users"].method; // string (from Routes)
routes["/users"].handler; // () => void (from Routes)

// 'as const' + 'satisfies': literal types + validation
const colors = {
  primary: "#ff0000",
  secondary: "#00ff00",
} as const satisfies Record<string, `#${string}`;

// types/my-module.d.ts — describes the types of a JS library

// Declare a module (for libraries without types)
declare module "untyped-lib" {
  export function greet(name: string): string;
  export const version: string;
  export interface Config {
    timeout: number;
    retries: number;
  }
}

// Ambient declarations for global variables
declare global {
  interface Window {
    myCustomProp: string;
    myApp: { init: () => void };
  }
}

// Now window.myCustomProp is typed
// window.myCustomProp; // string

// Declaring a global function
declare function myGlobalFn(x: number): string;

// Declaring a global namespace
declare namespace MyLib {
  function doSomething(): void;
  const version: string;
}

// Use 'declare' for things that exist at runtime but not in TS
// Common for: legacy JS, browser globals, build-time constants

// Module augmentation: add to an existing module's types

// Extend an interface from another module
import express from "express";

declare module "express" {
  interface Request {
    user?: {
      id: number;
      name: string;
    };
    // Now req.user is typed on all Express requests
  }
}

// Augment a third-party module
declare module "axios" {
  export interface AxiosRequestConfig {
    retryCount?: number; // add a custom config option
  }
}

// Augment a global interface
declare global {
  interface Array<T> {
    last(): T | undefined; // add a custom array method
  }
}

// Implementation (in a .ts file, not .d.ts)
Array.prototype.last = function () {
  return this[this.length - 1];
};

[1, 2, 3].last(); // 3 — now typed!

// Module augmentation is how middleware adds typed properties
// to req/res objects in Express, Fastify, etc.

// Triple-slash directives are special comments processed by TS

/// <reference path="./other-types.d.ts" />
// Includes another declaration file (rarely needed with modules)

/// <reference types="node" />
// Includes types from @types/node (like process, Buffer, __dirname)

/// <reference lib="es2020" />
// Includes a built-in lib (alternative to tsconfig "lib")

// Most common use: referencing @types packages
// In a .d.ts file for a package that needs Node types:
/// <reference types="node" />

declare function readFile(path: string): Buffer; // Buffer from @types/node

// NOTE: With modern TS and tsconfig "types" and "lib" options,
// triple-slash directives are rarely needed. They're mostly
// used in .d.ts files for backward compatibility.

// Prefer tsconfig.json settings:
// {
//   "compilerOptions": {
//     "types": ["node"],      // instead of /// <reference types="node" />
//     "lib": ["es2020", "dom"] // instead of /// <reference lib="es2020" />
//   }
// }

// package.json for a library with TypeScript types
{
  "name": "my-library",
  "version": "1.0.0",
  "main": "dist/index.js",
  "types": "dist/index.d.ts",  // <-- points to the type declarations
  "files": ["dist"],
  "scripts": {
    "build": "tsc",
    "prepublishOnly": "npm run build"
  }
}

// tsconfig.json for building a library
{
  "compilerOptions": {
    "declaration": true,        // generate .d.ts files
    "declarationMap": true,     // generate .d.ts.map (source maps for types)
    "sourceMap": true,          // generate .js.map
    "outDir": "./dist",
    "rootDir": "./src",
    "composite": true           // enable project references
  }
}

// Consumers get types automatically when they 'npm install my-library'
import { myFunction } from "my-library"; // fully typed!

// For libraries without bundled types, install @types package:
// npm install --save-dev @types/express

// Check if types exist: https://www.typescriptlang.org/dt/search

// 'import type' imports only types (erased at runtime, no JS emitted)
import type { User, Config } from "./types";
import type { ReactNode } from "react";

// These are erased completely — no runtime import in the output JS
// Useful for: reducing bundle size, avoiding circular dependencies

// Mixed import: value + type
import { createStore, type Store } from "redux";
// createStore is a runtime import; Store is type-only

// 'export type' re-exports types only
export type { User, Config } from "./types";

// Interface vs Type for declarations
interface IUser { name: string; }  // can be augmented/merged
type TUser = { name: string };     // cannot be merged, more flexible

// VerbatimModuleSyntax (TS 5.0+): enforces 'import type' for type-only
// imports, ensuring they're always elided
// {
//   "compilerOptions": { "verbatimModuleSyntax": true }
// }

{
  "compilerOptions": {
    "target": "ES2022",        // JS version to compile to
    "module": "ESNext",        // module system (ESNext, CommonJS, etc.)
    "moduleResolution": "bundler", // how modules are resolved
    "lib": ["ES2022", "DOM"],  // available type definitions
    "outDir": "./dist",        // output directory for compiled JS
    "rootDir": "./src",        // root of source files
    "sourceMap": true,         // generate .map files for debugging
    "declaration": true,       // generate .d.ts files (for libraries)
    "removeComments": true,    // strip comments from output

    // Type checking strictness
    "strict": true,            // enable ALL strict checks (recommended)
    "noImplicitAny": true,     // error on implicit 'any'
    "strictNullChecks": true,  // null/undefined are separate types
    "noUnusedLocals": true,    // error on unused local variables
    "noUnusedParameters": true,// error on unused function params
    "noImplicitReturns": true, // error if not all paths return
    "noFallthroughCasesInSwitch": true,

    "esModuleInterop": true,   // allow default imports from CommonJS
    "skipLibCheck": true,      // skip type checking of .d.ts files
    "forceConsistentCasingInFileNames": true
  }
}

{
  "compilerOptions": {
    // 'strict: true' enables ALL of these:

    "strictNullChecks": true,
    // null and undefined are NOT assignable to other types
    // without explicit union. Forces null handling.
    let x: string = null; // ERROR (without this, it's allowed)

    "noImplicitAny": true,
    // Parameters/variables can't be implicitly 'any'
    function fn(x) { } // ERROR: x is implicitly any

    "strictFunctionTypes": true,
    // Function parameter types checked contravariantly
    // (catches unsafe function assignments)

    "strictBindCallApply": true,
    // bind/call/apply are type-checked

    "strictPropertyInitialization": true,
    // Class properties must be initialized or declared with !
    class User {
      name: string; // ERROR: not initialized
      name2!: string; // OK: definite assignment assertion
    }

    "noImplicitThis": true,
    // 'this' must have a known type (no implicit any)

    "alwaysStrict": true
    // Emit "use strict" in every file
  }
}

{
  "compilerOptions": {
    // How TS resolves import paths

    "moduleResolution": "node",    // classic Node.js resolution
    // Looks for: file.ts, file/index.ts, node_modules/file

    "moduleResolution": "bundler", // for Vite/webpack/esbuild (TS 5.0+)
    // Matches how bundlers resolve: supports import maps,
    // conditional exports, no file extension requirement

    "moduleResolution": "nodenext", // Node.js ESM resolution (strict)
    // Requires file extensions in imports: import "./foo.js"

    // Path mapping (aliases)
    "baseUrl": ".",
    "paths": {
      "@/*": ["src/*"],           // import "@/components/Button"
      "@utils/*": ["src/utils/*"],
      "@components": ["src/components/index.ts"]
    }

    // rootDirs: virtual directories that map to the same location
    "rootDirs": ["src", "generated"],
    // imports between src/ and generated/ resolve as if same dir
  }
}

// In your code:
import { Button } from "@/components/Button";
import { formatDate } from "@utils/date";
// These resolve to src/components/Button.ts and src/utils/date.ts

// tsconfig.json (root — references sub-projects)
{
  "files": [],
  "references": [
    { "path": "./packages/shared" },
    { "path": "./packages/api" },
    { "path": "./packages/web" }
  ]
}

// packages/shared/tsconfig.json
{
  "compilerOptions": {
    "composite": true,          // required for project references
    "declaration": true,        // must emit declarations
    "outDir": "./dist",
    "rootDir": "./src"
  },
  "include": ["src"]
}

// packages/api/tsconfig.json
{
  "compilerOptions": { /* ... */ },
  "references": [
    { "path": "../shared" }     // depends on shared
  ]
}

// Benefits:
// 1. Faster builds — only rebuild changed projects
// 2. Clear dependency boundaries between packages
// 3. Type-checking is scoped per project
// 4. tsc --build handles the build order automatically

// Build command: tsc --build (or tsc -b)

// React + Vite project
{
  "compilerOptions": {
    "target": "ES2022",
    "module": "ESNext",
    "moduleResolution": "bundler",
    "jsx": "react-jsx",          // React 17+ JSX transform
    "lib": ["ES2022", "DOM", "DOM.Iterable"],
    "strict": true,
    "noEmit": true,             // Vite handles compilation
    "isolatedModules": true,    // required by Vite/esbuild
    "verbatimModuleSyntax": true
  },
  "include": ["src"]
}

// Node.js backend project
{
  "compilerOptions": {
    "target": "ES2022",
    "module": "CommonJS",        // or NodeNext for ESM
    "moduleResolution": "node",
    "lib": ["ES2022"],
    "types": ["node"],           // @types/node
    "outDir": "./dist",
    "strict": true,
    "esModuleInterop": true
  },
  "include": ["src"]
}

// Library project (publishes to npm)
{
  "compilerOptions": {
    "target": "ES2020",          // broader compatibility
    "module": "ESNext",
    "declaration": true,         // emit .d.ts
    "declarationMap": true,
    "outDir": "./dist",
    "strict": true
  },
  "include": ["src"],
  "exclude": ["node_modules", "dist", "**/*.test.ts"]
}

function logged<T extends new (...args: any[]) => any>(con: T) {
    return class extends con {
        created = new Date().toISOString();
    };
}
@logged
class Service { constructor(public name: string) {} }

function log(target: any, key: string, desc: PropertyDescriptor) {
    const orig = desc.value;
    desc.value = function(...args: any[]) {
        console.log(`Calling ${key}`, args);
        return orig.apply(this, args);
    };
}
class Calc { @log add(a: number, b: number) { return a + b; } }

function required(target: any, key: string) {
    let val: any;
    Object.defineProperty(target, key, {
        get() { return val; },
        set(v: any) { if (v == null) throw new Error(`${key} required`); val = v; }
    });
}

function Min(min: number) {
    return (target: any, key: string, idx: number) => {
        console.log(`${key} param ${idx} >= ${min}`);
    };
}
class Order { create(@Min(0) qty: number) { return qty; } }

function Retry(times: number) {
    return function(target: any, key: string, desc: PropertyDescriptor) {
        const orig = desc.value;
        desc.value = async function(...args: any[]) {
            for (let i = 0; i < times; i++)
                try { return await orig.apply(this, args); }
                catch (e) { if (i === times - 1) throw e; }
        };
    };
}

declare global {
    interface Array<T> {
        last(): T | undefined;
        chunk(size: number): T[][];
    }
}
Array.prototype.last = function() { return this[this.length - 1]; };

declare module 'express' {
    interface Request {
        user?: { id: string; role: string };
    }
}
app.get('/profile', (req, res) => {
    const userId = req.user?.id;  // Typed!
});

declare global {
    interface Window {
        myApp: { init: () => void; version: string };
    }
}
window.myApp = { init: () => console.log('Ready'), version: '1.0.0' };

declare module '*.module.css' {
    const classes: { readonly [key: string]: string };
    export default classes;
}
import styles from './Button.module.css';
<button className={styles.button} />

declare module 'vue' {
    interface ComponentCustomProperties {
        $auth: { login: () => Promise<void> };
    }
}
export default defineComponent({
    methods: { async login() { await this.$auth.login(); } }
});

interface User { name: string; }
interface User { age: number; }
interface User { email: string; }
const user: User = { name: 'Alice', age: 30, email: '[email protected]' };

namespace Utils {
    export function log(msg: string) { console.log(msg); }
}
namespace Utils {
    export function warn(msg: string) { console.warn(msg); }
}
Utils.log('info'); Utils.warn('alert');

function Counter() { Counter.count++; }
namespace Counter {
    export let count = 0;
    export function reset() { count = 0; }
}
Counter(); Counter();
console.log(Counter.count);  // 2

class Settings { static defaults = { theme: 'light' }; }
namespace Settings {
    export interface Options { theme: string; lang: string; }
}
const opts: Settings.Options = { theme: 'dark', lang: 'en' };

// Cannot merge classes
class A { x = 1; }
class A { y = 2; }  // Error
// Function overloads (allowed)
function fn(x: string): string;
function fn(x: number): number;
function fn(x: any): any { return x; }

function process(value: string | number | Date) {
    if (typeof value === 'string') return value.toUpperCase();
    if (typeof value === 'number') return value.toFixed(2);
    if (value instanceof Date) return value.toISOString();
}

interface Cat { meow(): void; }
interface Dog { bark(): void; }
function speak(animal: Cat | Dog) {
    if ('meow' in animal) animal.meow();
    else animal.bark();
}

type Result =
    | { status: 'success'; data: string }
    | { status: 'error'; message: string };
function handle(r: Result) {
    switch (r.status) {
        case 'success': console.log(r.data); break;
        case 'error': console.log(r.message); break;
    }
}

function isFish(pet: Fish | Bird): pet is Fish {
    return (pet as Fish).swim !== undefined;
}
function move(pet: Fish | Bird) {
    if (isFish(pet)) pet.swim();
    else pet.fly();
}

function assertDefined<T>(value: T | null | undefined): asserts value is T {
    if (value == null) throw new Error('Null or undefined');
}
function processUser(user?: User) {
    assertDefined(user);
    console.log(user.name);  // User (not undefined)
}

type Greeting = `hello ${string}`;
const g: Greeting = 'hello world';  // OK
type Endpoint = `${'GET' | 'POST'} /api/${string}`;
const ep: Endpoint = 'GET /api/users';

type Upper = Uppercase<'hello'>;  // 'HELLO'
type Lower = Lowercase<'WORLD'>;  // 'world'
type Cap = Capitalize<'foo'>;     // 'Foo'
type EventName = `on${Capitalize<'click'>}`;  // 'onClick'

type Getters<T> = {
    [K in keyof T as `get${Capitalize<string & K>}>`]: () => T[K];
};
interface Person { name: string; age: number; }
type PersonGetters = Getters<Person>;
// { getName: () => string; getAge: () => number; }

type Split<S extends string, D extends string> =
    S extends `${infer L}${D}${infer R}` ? [L, ...Split<R, D>] : [S];
type Parts = Split<'a,b,c', ','>;  // ['a', 'b', 'c']

type EventMap = { click: { x: number }; submit: { value: string } };
class Emitter {
    on<K extends keyof EventMap>(event: K, handler: (e: EventMap[K]) => void) {}
    emit<K extends keyof EventMap>(event: K, data: EventMap[K]) {}
}
em.on('click', e => console.log(e.x));  // Typed!

type ReturnOf<T> = T extends (...args: any[]) => infer R ? R : never;
function getUser() { return { name: 'Alice', age: 30 }; }
type User = ReturnOf<typeof getUser>;  // { name: string; age: number; }

type UnwrapPromise<T> = T extends Promise<infer U> ? U : T;
type R = UnwrapPromise<Promise<string>>;  // string
type DeepUnwrap<T> = T extends Promise<infer U> ? DeepUnwrap<U> : T;
type D = DeepUnwrap<Promise<Promise<boolean>>>;  // boolean

type ElementOf<T> = T extends (infer E)[] ? E : never;
type T1 = ElementOf<string[]>;  // string
type First<T extends any[]> = T extends [infer F, ...any[]] ? F : never;
type F = First<[string, number]>;  // string

type Params<T> = T extends (...args: infer P) => any ? P : never;
function greet(name: string, age: number) { return ''; }
type P = Params<typeof greet>;  // [string, number]

type FirstLast<T extends any[]> =
    T extends [infer First, ...any[], infer Last]
        ? { first: First; last: Last } : never;
type R = FirstLast<[1, 2, 3, 4]>;  // { first: 1; last: 4 }

class Animal { name: string; }
class Dog extends Animal { breed: string; }
let dogs: Dog[] = [new Dog()];
let animals: Animal[] = dogs;  // OK (covariant)
// animals.push(new Animal());  // Unsafe at runtime

type Handler<T> = (arg: T) => void;
let dogHandler: Handler<Dog> = (d) => console.log(d.breed);
let animalHandler: Handler<Animal> = dogHandler;  // OK with strictFunctionTypes

interface IFace {
    method(x: Animal): void;  // bivariant
    fn: (x: Animal) => void;  // contravariant
}
class Impl implements IFace {
    method(x: Dog) {}  // OK (bivariant)
    fn = (x: Dog) => {}  // Error (contravariant)
}

interface Producer<out T> { produce(): T; }
interface Consumer<in T> { consume(value: T): void; }
interface Buffer<in out T> { read(): T; write(value: T): void; }

interface Box<T> { get(): T; set(value: T): void; }
let dogBox: Box<Dog> = {} as any;
let animalBox: Box<Animal> = dogBox;  // Error: invariant

class QueryBuilder {
    private parts: string[] = [];
    select(cols: string): this { this.parts.push(`SELECT ${cols}`); return this; }
    from(table: string): this { this.parts.push(`FROM ${table}`); return this; }
    where(cond: string): this { this.parts.push(`WHERE ${cond}`); return this; }
    build(): string { return this.parts.join(' '); }
}

interface State { hasName: boolean; }
class Builder<S extends State> {
    name(n: string): Builder<S & { hasName: true }> { return this as any; }
    build(): S extends { hasName: true } ? Person : never { return {} as any; }
}

class ImmutableBuilder<T extends object> {
    constructor(private data: T) {}
    set<K extends string, V>(key: K, value: V):
        ImmutableBuilder<T & { [P in K]: V }> {
        return new ImmutableBuilder({ ...this.data, [key]: value });
    }
    build(): T { return this.data; }
}

class HTMLBuilder {
    private html = '';
    addTag(tag: string, content: string): this {
        this.html += `<${tag}>${content}</${tag}>`; return this;
    }
    build(): string { return this.html; }
}
class Director {
    buildPage(title: string, body: string): string {
        return new HTMLBuilder().addTag('title', title).addTag('body', body).build();
    }
}

class Step1 { name(n: string): Step2 { return new Step2(n); } }
class Step2 {
    constructor(private name: string) {}
    age(a: number): Step3 { return new Step3(this.name, a); }
}
class Step3 {
    constructor(private name: string, private age: number) {}
    build() { return { name: this.name, age: this.age }; }
}

import { sum } from './sum';
describe('sum', () => {
    it('adds two numbers', () => {
        expect(sum(1, 2)).toBe(3);
    });
    it('handles negatives', () => {
        expect(sum(-1, -2)).toBe(-3);
    });
});

import { expectTypeOf } from 'vitest';
type GetUser = (id: string) => Promise<{ name: string }>;
test('return type is correct', () => {
    const fn = {} as unknown as GetUser;
    expectTypeOf(fn).returns.toEqualTypeOf<{ name: string }>();
    expectTypeOf(fn).parameters.toEqualTypeOf<[string]>();
});

interface Database { find(id: string): Promise<User>; }
const mockDb: jest.Mocked<Database> = {
    find: jest.fn().mockResolvedValue({ id: '1', name: 'Alice' }),
};
mockDb.find.mockResolvedValueOnce({ id: '2', name: 'Bob' });

describe('Database', () => {
    beforeAll(async () => { db = createDatabase(); await db.connect(); });
    afterAll(async () => { await db.disconnect(); });
    beforeEach(async () => { await db.clear(); });
    afterEach(() => { jest.restoreAllMocks(); });
});

import { fc } from 'fast-check';
describe('sort', () => {
    it('preserves length', () => {
        fc.assert(fc.property(fc.array(fc.integer()), (arr) => {
            return [...arr].sort().length === arr.length;
        }));
    });
});

// BAD: any disables type checking
function bad(data: any) { return data.foo.bar; }
// GOOD: unknown forces type checking
function good(data: unknown) {
    if (typeof data === 'object' && data !== null && 'foo' in data)
        return (data as any).foo;
}

interface User { name: string; age: number; }
// Direct literal: checked
const u1: User = { name: 'A', age: 30, extra: true };  // Error
// Via variable: not checked
const data = { name: 'A', age: 30, extra: true };
const u2: User = data;  // OK

// Enum: runtime object
enum Color { Red, Green, Blue }
// Union: no runtime
type Color2 = 'red' | 'green' | 'blue';
// Const enum: erased
const enum Dir { Up, Down }

interface User { name: string; age: number; }
interface Admin { name: string; age: number; role: string; }
const admin: Admin = { name: 'Bob', age: 40, role: 'admin' };
const user: User = admin;  // OK (structural)

// BAD: assertion hides errors
const user = JSON.parse(input) as User;
// GOOD: runtime validation
import { z } from 'zod';
const schema = z.object({ name: z.string() });
const result = schema.safeParse(JSON.parse(input));
if (result.success) { const user: User = result.data; }