YAML Шпаргалка

# YAML uses indentation for structure
# Comments start with #

# Key-value pairs (mappings)
name: Alice
age: 30

# Nested mappings (use consistent indentation)
person:
  name: Bob
  age: 25
  address:
    city: NYC
    zip: 10001

# Sequences (lists)
hobbies:
  - reading
  - coding
  - music

# Inline syntax
numbers: [1, 2, 3]
coords: {x: 10, y: 20}

# Full-line comment
key: value  # Inline comment (whitespace before # required)

# Comments can appear anywhere
# - before documents
# - inside sequences
list:
  - a  # first item
  - b  # second item

# Block scalar headers DO accept comments
text: |  # literal block
  line one

# But the content of block scalars is literal,
# so # inside is NOT a comment:
literal: |
  # this is part of the string, not a comment

# Use SPACES only — tabs are forbidden for indentation
# 2 spaces is the most common convention

mapping:
  nested:
    deeply_nested: value

# Sequences can be indented at the same level as the key
items:
  - one
  - two

# Or indented further (both are valid)
items2:
    - one
    - two

# WRONG: tab characters cause parser errors
# bad:	value   (tab before value)

# Hyphen counts as indentation start
- item1
- item2

# --- separates documents in a stream
# ... ends a document (optional)

---
name: first document
value: 1
...
---
name: second document
value: 2
...

# A single document needs no markers
key: value

# But --- is recommended at the start of files
# to disambiguate from plain text
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: ConfigMap

# Colon needs a space after it
key:value      # WRONG: parsed as a single string "key:value"
key: value     # correct

# Yes/No/On/Off are NOT booleans in YAML 1.2
# (they WERE in YAML 1.1 — common gotcha)
answer: yes    # YAML 1.1: true; YAML 1.2: "yes" string

# Numbers with leading zeros
version: 010   # YAML 1.1: octal 8; YAML 1.2: string "010"

# Unquoted strings with special chars
url: example.com/path   # OK
url: example.com:8080   # WRONG: parsed as mapping with key example.com

# Empty values
empty:       # null
empty2: ~    # explicit null
empty3: ""   # empty string (different from null)

# JSON is a strict subset of YAML 1.2
# Every valid JSON document is valid YAML

# JSON:
{"name": "Alice", "age": 30, "hobbies": ["a", "b"]}

# Equivalent YAML:
name: Alice
age: 30
hobbies:
  - a
  - b

# YAML adds: comments, multi-line strings, anchors,
# relaxed quoting, tags, multiple documents

# YAML removes: mandatory quotes around strings,
# commas, braces (in block style)

# YAML is a superset of JSON — not the other way.
# Comments and anchors are not valid JSON.

# Plain strings (no quotes) — most common
name: Alice
path: /usr/local/bin
url: https://example.com

# Single-quoted — escape ' by doubling
msg: 'it''s fine'

# Double-quoted — supports escapes
greeting: "Hello\nWorld"
unicode: "\u03B1"   # Greek alpha
tab: "col1\tcol2"

# Multi-word plain strings are fine
description: This is a plain string with spaces

# Strings that look like other types must be quoted
version: "1.0"      # string, not float
notBool: "true"     # string, not boolean
notNull: "null"     # string, not null
date: "2024-01-01"  # string, not date

# Integers
int: 42
negative: -17
positive: +100
underscored: 1_000_000   # readable grouping (YAML 1.2)

# Octal & hex (YAML 1.2 prefixes)
octal: 0o17     # = 15 decimal
hex: 0xFF       # = 255 decimal
binary: 0b1010  # = 10 decimal

# Floats
pi: 3.14159
exp: 1.0e+3     # 1000.0
neg_exp: -2.5e-4

# Special float values (IEEE 754)
infinity: .inf
neg_infinity: -.inf
not_a_number: .nan

# To force a string that looks numeric:
version: "1.0"
phone: "555-1234"

# YAML 1.2 — only these are booleans:
enabled: true
disabled: false

# YAML 1.1 ALSO accepts (common gotcha):
# yes, no, on, off, y, n, Y, N
# These are strings in 1.2 but booleans in 1.1

# To force a string:
answer: "yes"      # always a string
option: "on"
flag: "y"

# PyYAML (1.1 rules) parses these as booleans:
# yes -> True, no -> False, on -> True, off -> False
# This breaks "no" as an answer or country code!

# Safe practice: quote if you mean the literal string
country: "no"   # Norway country code, not False

# All of these represent null/None/null
key1: null
key2: Null
key3: NULL
key4: ~
key5:             # empty value

# Distinguish null from empty string
empty_string: ""
null_value: null

# In sequences
list:
  - value
  - null         # explicit null item
  - another

# In nested structures
config:
  timeout: null   # explicitly unset
  retries: 3

# Parsers convert to language-specific null:
# Python -> None, JavaScript -> null, Go -> nil

# Date (ISO 8601)
date: 2024-01-15

# Datetime (ISO 8601)
datetime: 2024-01-15T14:30:00
datetime_tz: 2024-01-15T14:30:00Z
datetime_offset: 2024-01-15T14:30:00+08:00
datetime_space: 2024-01-15 14:30:00

# To force string (not a date):
not_a_date: "2024-01-15"
not_a_date2: '2024-01-15'

# Parsers typically return datetime objects
# Python: datetime.date / datetime.datetime
# JavaScript: Date (depending on library)

# YAML infers types from unquoted scalars
str: hello             # string
int: 42                # integer
float: 3.14            # float
bool: true             # boolean
null_val: null         # null
date: 2024-01-01       # date
list: [1, 2, 3]        # sequence

# Force string type with quotes
str_version: "42"
str_date: "2024-01-01"
str_bool: "true"

# Or with the !!str tag
forced: !!str 42        # string "42"
forced_int: !!int "42"  # integer 42

# Resolution depends on the schema
# Failsafe: everything is a string
# JSON/Core: numbers, bools, null inferred

# A mapping is a set of key: value pairs
name: Alice
age: 30
email: [email protected]

# Keys can be any scalar type (string, number, bool)
"string key": value
123: numeric key
true: boolean key

# Duplicate keys are technically discouraged
# but some parsers allow them (last wins)
key: first
key: second   # overrides "first" in many parsers

# Values can be any type
mixed:
  string: text
  number: 42
  list: [1, 2, 3]
  nested:
    deep: value

# Nest mappings with consistent indentation
server:
  host: localhost
  port: 8080
  ssl:
    enabled: true
    cert: /etc/ssl/cert.pem
    key: /etc/ssl/key.pem

database:
  primary:
    host: db1.example.com
    port: 5432
  replica:
    host: db2.example.com
    port: 5432

# Indentation level is up to you — just be consistent
# 2 spaces is the most common convention

# Values in a mapping can be sequences
servers:
  - web1.example.com
  - web2.example.com
  - web3.example.com

# Sequence of mappings (very common)
users:
  - name: Alice
    age: 30
  - name: Bob
    age: 25

# Each - starts a new item; aligned keys form one mapping
services:
  - name: api
    port: 8080
    env:
      - dev
      - prod
  - name: web
    port: 3000

# Mixed: mapping containing sequence containing mapping
config:
  endpoints:
    - path: /health
      method: GET
    - path: /users
      method: POST

# Keys can be complex objects using ? notation
? key1
: value1

# A mapping as a key
? host: localhost
  port: 8080
: connection1

# A sequence as a key
? [a, b, c]
: indexed_value

# Practical (rare) use: matrix lookup
? [us-east-1, t2.micro]
: 0.0116
? [us-east-1, t2.small]
: 0.023

# In flow style:
{[a, b]: value, {x: 1}: other}

# Most config files just use plain string keys
simple: value

# Flow style mapping (like JSON)
point: {x: 10, y: 20}
config: {host: localhost, port: 8080}

# Nested flow mappings
nested: {a: {b: {c: value}}}

# Mixed flow and block
block_key:
  flow_value: {x: 1, y: 2}
  another: value

# Flow with sequences
mixed: {nums: [1, 2, 3], name: test}

# Quoting still works in flow style
quoted: {"key with space": "value", count: 3}

# Trailing comma is NOT allowed in YAML flow
bad: {a: 1, b: 2,}   # parse error

# YAML mappings are ORDERED (unlike JSON spec, though
# most JSON parsers preserve insertion order too)
# But language objects may not preserve order:
# Python dict (3.7+): preserves order
# Ruby Hash: preserves order
# JSON object: technically unordered

# Consistent key style improves readability
config:
  server:
    host: localhost      # snake_case
    port: 8080
    max_connections: 100
  database:
    host: db.example.com
    port: 5432
    connection_pool: 10

# Group related keys together
# Use comments to delineate sections
app:
  # networking
  host: 0.0.0.0
  port: 3000
  # limits
  timeout: 30
  retries: 3

# A sequence (list) uses - followed by space
fruits:
  - apple
  - banana
  - cherry

# Sequence as top-level document
- item1
- item2
- item3

# Empty sequence
empty: []
or_with_marker: []

# Sequence with mixed types
mixed:
  - string
  - 42
  - true
  - null
  - key: value   # a mapping as an item

# Sequence of sequences
matrix:
  - - 1
    - 2
    - 3
  - - 4
    - 5
    - 6

# More readable with flow style for inner
matrix2:
  - [1, 2, 3]
  - [4, 5, 6]

# Deeply nested
tree:
  - name: root
    children:
      - name: child1
        children:
          - name: grandchild1
      - name: child2

# 3D: sequence of sequence of sequence
cube:
  - - [1, 2]
    - [3, 4]
  - - [5, 6]
    - [7, 8]]

# Most common pattern: list of records
users:
  - name: Alice
    email: [email protected]
    roles:
      - admin
      - user
  - name: Bob
    email: [email protected]
    roles:
      - user

# Each - starts a new mapping; aligned keys belong
# to that item. Indent the first key after - by 2 spaces.
servers:
  - host: web1.example.com
    port: 8080
    healthy: true
  - host: web2.example.com
    port: 8080
    healthy: false

# Empty mapping item
list:
  - {}
  - name: real

# Flow sequence (JSON-like)
numbers: [1, 2, 3]
names: [Alice, Bob, Charlie]

# Nested flow sequences
matrix: [[1, 2], [3, 4]]

# Flow sequence of flow mappings
points: [{x: 1, y: 2}, {x: 3, y: 4}]

# Mixed: block mapping with flow sequence value
config:
  ports: [80, 443, 8080]
  hosts: [web1, web2, web3]

# Spread across multiple lines (still flow style)
long_list: [
  item1,
  item2,
  item3
]

# NO trailing comma allowed
bad: [1, 2, 3,]   # error

# Sequences can mix types freely
mixed:
  - string
  - 42
  - true
  - null
  - [1, 2, 3]            # nested sequence
  - key: value           # mapping
    another: value2
  - - nested
    - sequence

# Heterogeneous mapping values
config:
  string_val: text
  int_val: 42
  list_val: [a, b, c]
  map_val: {x: 1, y: 2}
  null_val: null
  bool_val: true

# YAML has no schema enforcing uniformity —
# the application must validate structure

# Pattern 1: sequence indented under key
items:
  - a
  - b

# Pattern 2: sequence at same level as key
# (the - is treated as indentation)
items:
- a
- b

# Both are valid and produce the same result.
# Pick one and be consistent (most style guides prefer #1).

# Mapping item alignment — both keys align with first
users:
  - name: Alice
    age: 30
  - name: Bob
    age: 25

# WRONG: misaligned keys cause parse errors
# users:
#   - name: Alice
#    age: 30    # one space off — error

# | preserves newlines as-is
script: |
  #!/bin/bash
  echo "Hello"
  echo "World"

# Output string:
# #!/bin/bash\necho "Hello"\necho "World"\n

poem: |
  Roses are red,
  Violets are blue,
  YAML is clean,
  And JSON is too.

# Trailing newline is kept by default (clip mode)
# Use |- to strip, |+ to keep all trailing newlines

# > folds newlines into spaces (paragraphs)
description: >
  This is a long paragraph that
  spans multiple lines in the YAML
  but will be joined into one line
  when parsed.

# Output: "This is a long paragraph that spans multiple
# lines in the YAML but will be joined into one line when
# parsed.\n"

# Blank lines preserve a newline
paragraphs: >
  First paragraph here.

  Second paragraph here.

  Third paragraph here.

# More indented lines are preserved literally
example: >
  This is folded.
    This line is more indented — kept literal.

# Default (clip): single trailing newline
text: |
  line1
  line2
# Result: "line1\nline2\n"

# Strip (-): remove ALL trailing newlines
text_strip: |-
  line1
  line2
# Result: "line1\nline2"

# Keep (+): keep ALL trailing newlines
text_keep: |+
  line1
  line2


# Result: "line1\nline2\n\n\n"

# Same applies to folded scalars
folded_keep: >+
  folded
  text

# When the first line starts with spaces, you must
# tell YAML the content indentation explicitly

# Without indicator (ambiguous):
# content:
#   indented_line   # is the leading space content or not?

# With explicit indentation indicator (digit after | or >)
literal: |2
    hello
      world
# The "2" means: content is indented 2 spaces past the indicator
# So 4 spaces of indentation = 2 content + 2 extra

# Combined with chomping (order: indent then chomp)
text: |2-
    no trailing newline

# Folded with explicit indent
folded: >4
    paragraph with
    explicit indent

# Most of the time you don't need this — only when
# content legitimately starts with spaces

# Plain (unquoted) scalars can span lines
# Newlines are folded to spaces (like > but no indicator)
message: this is
  a long message
  on multiple lines
# Result: "this is a long message on multiple lines"

# Quotes are required if the string contains special chars
quoted: "this is also
  a long message
  on multiple lines"
# Result: "this is also a long message on multiple lines"

# Plain multi-line breaks at certain chars
# (colons, etc.) — usually fold cleanly
# but be careful with leading colons

# Plain is fragile for multi-line — prefer | or >
safe_literal: |
  Use literal block for
  predictable multi-line text

# Use | (literal) when newlines matter:
script: |
  #!/bin/bash
  set -e
  echo "Step 1"
  echo "Step 2"

config_file: |
  [default]
  region=us-east-1
  output=json

# Use > (folded) when you want readable source
# but a single paragraph string:
description: >
  This service handles user authentication
  and session management. It talks to the
  PostgreSQL database and Redis cache.

# Use |- or >- to strip trailing newline
# (useful for inline string usage):
inline_script: |-
  echo hello

# Use plain single-line for short strings
short: hello world

# &name defines an anchor on a node
defaults: &defaults
  adapter: postgres
  host: localhost
  port: 5432

# The anchor marks the node so it can be reused
# The value is still assigned normally
production:
  database: *defaults
  # *defaults is an alias — references the anchored node

# Anchors on scalars
version: &ver "1.0.0"
current: *ver

# Anchors on sequences
colors: &colors
  - red
  - green
  - blue
primary: *colors

# Define once, reuse by alias
base: &base
  image: nginx:1.25
  restart: always

web:
  <<: *base
  ports:
    - "80:80"

api:
  <<: *base
  ports:
    - "8080:8080"
  environment:
    - DEBUG=true

# Aliases reference the SAME object (by identity)
# In most parsers, mutating one mutates the other
# (though YAML itself is read-only)

# Aliases can't span documents
# Each document has its own anchor namespace

# Anchors are scoped to a single document
---
# Document 1
shared: &shared
  key: value
use: *shared   # works
...
---
# Document 2 — &shared is NOT visible here
other: *shared   # ERROR: unknown anchor

# Anchors must be defined before the alias
# (forward references are not allowed)
bad: *later      # ERROR
later: &later value

# Multiple aliases to the same anchor are fine
template: &tpl
  timeout: 30
use1: *tpl
use2: *tpl
use3: *tpl

# Aliasing an alias is allowed
a: &a value
b: &b *a
c: *b   # resolves to "value"

# Aliases themselves can't be partially overridden —
# an alias replaces the whole node. Use << (merge)
# to combine an anchored mapping with overrides.
defaults: &defaults
  timeout: 30
  retries: 3
  log_level: info

production:
  <<: *defaults
  log_level: warn      # override
  host: prod.example.com   # add

# Result:
# production:
#   timeout: 30
#   retries: 3
#   log_level: warn
#   host: prod.example.com

# Without <<, an alias replaces the whole node:
wrong:
  thing: *defaults
  # thing is the FULL defaults mapping — can't override

# Anchors work on sequence items too
common: &common
  enabled: true
  log: stdout

services:
  - name: web
    <<: *common
    port: 80
  - name: api
    <<: *common
    port: 8080
  - name: worker
    <<: *common
    queue: jobs

# Anchoring a whole sequence
endpoints: &endpoints
  - /health
  - /metrics
  - /ready

monitoring:
  checks: *endpoints

# Anchoring individual sequence items
list:
  - &first one
  - two
  - *first   # "one" again

# Caveat 1: shared identity can surprise you
defaults: &defaults
  list: [1, 2, 3]

a: *defaults
b: *defaults
# In mutable parsers, a.list and b.list are the SAME list.
# Editing a.list also changes b.list.

# Caveat 2: anchors add cognitive overhead
# Overuse makes YAML hard to read and trace.

# Caveat 3: not all tools preserve anchors on output
# Many serializers expand aliases to plain copies.

# Caveat 4: JSON output loses anchors entirely
# (JSON has no anchor concept).

# Caveat 5: anchors don't work across documents
---
doc1: &x value
use1: *x
---
doc2: *x   # ERROR

# Prefer anchors for genuine reuse, not micro-optimization.

# << merges a referenced mapping into the current one
defaults: &defaults
  adapter: postgres
  pool: 5
  timeout: 5000

development:
  <<: *defaults
  database: myapp_dev
  host: localhost

production:
  <<: *defaults
  database: myapp_prod
  host: db.example.com
  pool: 20      # override

# Result for development:
# adapter: postgres
# pool: 5
# timeout: 5000
# database: myapp_dev
# host: localhost

# << can merge multiple mappings (sequence value)
base: &base
  logging: info
  retries: 3

security: &security
  auth: required
  tls: true

service: &service
  port: 8080
  host: 0.0.0.0

# Merge multiple in one go
production:
  <<: [*base, *security, *service]
  environment: prod
  port: 80        # override service.port

# Later merges override earlier ones for the same key.
# Explicit keys always win over merges.

# You can also have multiple << entries:
combined:
  <<: *base
  <<: *security
  custom: value

# Explicit keys override merged keys
template: &template
  port: 8080
  log: info
  timeout: 30

instance:
  <<: *template
  port: 9090        # overrides template.port
  log: debug        # overrides template.log
  host: example.com # added

# Final: {port: 9090, log: debug, timeout: 30, host: example.com}

# Precedence: explicit > later merge > earlier merge
a: &a
  k: from_a
  x: 1
b: &b
  k: from_b
  y: 2

result:
  <<: [*a, *b]
  k: explicit   # wins over both a and b
# Final: {k: explicit, x: 1, y: 2}

# Common pattern: anchor templates, merge + override
defaults: &defaults
  image: nginx:1.25
  restart: always
  logging:
    driver: json-file

services:
  web:
    <<: *defaults
    ports: ["80:80"]
  api:
    <<: *defaults
    image: node:20      # override
    ports: ["8080:8080"]
    environment:
      NODE_ENV: production
  worker:
    <<: *defaults
    image: worker:latest
    command: ["./run.sh"]

# This is the bread-and-butter of Docker Compose files
# — share base config, override per service.

# << only works for MAPPINGS, not sequences or scalars
list_template: &list [1, 2, 3]

# This does NOT merge list items:
combined:
  <<: *list      # WRONG: *list is a sequence, not a mapping
  extra: value   # parse error or unexpected behavior

# Deep merge is NOT supported
parent: &parent
  nested:
    a: 1
    b: 2

child:
  <<: *parent
  nested:
    c: 3   # REPLACES parent.nested entirely
# Result: {nested: {c: 3}}  — NOT {nested: {a:1, b:2, c:3}}

# To deep-merge, you must do it in application code
# or restructure the data.

# IMPORTANT: the << merge key was REMOVED in YAML 1.2
# It was a YAML 1.1 feature.

# In practice, many parsers still support it:
# - PyYAML: supports (1.1 mode)
# - js-yaml: supports (opt-in)
# - ruamel.yaml: supports
# - SnakeYAML: supports
# - LibYAML: supports

# But strict YAML 1.2 parsers reject it:
# new_yaml_1_2_strict:
#   <<: *template    # ERROR in strict 1.2

# Recommendation:
# - Use << for now (widely supported)
# - Document that your files rely on it
# - For new formats, consider composition in code
#   or a config language with proper inheritance
#   (e.g. Dhall, Cue, Jsonnet)

# Alternative without <<:
# just duplicate or use application-level templating

# YAML tags use !! prefix for built-in types
# (the long form is tag:yaml.org,2002:)

# Common built-in tags
str: !!str hello
int: !!int 42
float: !!float 3.14
bool: !!bool true
null: !!null null
binary: !!binary "SGVsbG8="
map: !!map {a: 1}
seq: !!seq [1, 2]
omap: !!omap
  - a: 1
  - b: 2
set: !!set
  ? item1
  ? item2
timestamp: !!timestamp 2024-01-01T00:00:00Z
merge: !!merge "<<"   # the merge key tag

# Tags force a specific type regardless of inference
forced_str: !!str 42        # "42" string
forced_int: !!int "42"      # 42 integer
forced_bool: !!bool "yes"   # true

# Without tags, type depends on schema inference
value: 42          # integer (Core schema)
value: "42"        # string (quoted)
value: !!str 42    # string (forced by tag)

# Common forcing scenarios
version: !!str 1.0       # "1.0" string, not float
phone: !!str 5551234     # string, not int
answer: !!str yes        # string, not bool (1.1)
region: !!str no         # string "no", not False (1.1)

# Force numeric parsing from strings
count: !!int "100"       # 100 integer
ratio: !!float "0.5"     # 0.5 float

# Force bool from strings
enabled: !!bool "yes"    # true
enabled: !!bool "off"    # false

# Force null
empty: !!null ""         # null
empty: !!null "~"        # null

# Application-specific tags use ! prefix
# The application's YAML loader must handle them

# Custom tag (application-defined)
person: !person
  name: Alice
  age: 30

# Tag with arguments
color: !color rgb(255, 0, 0)
point: !point [10, 20]

# Library-specific tags (PyYAML example)
# python/object/apply:module.func args
sorted_set: !!python/object/apply:sorted
  args:
    - [3, 1, 2]

# Ruby-specific (Psych)
# !ruby/object:ClassName

# Custom tags require custom constructors in code.
# Unknown tags usually cause errors in safe loaders.

# ! prefix — local tag (application-specific, no URI)
data: !myapp/data
  value: 42

# !! prefix — global built-in tag (resolved to yaml.org)
str: !!str hello

# !<full-uri> — verbatim tag (exact URI, no resolution)
binary: !<tag:example.com,2024:binary> "data"

# !tag!short — tag with prefix (resolved via %TAG directive)
%TAG !e! tag:example.com,2024:
data: !e!custom value
# resolves to tag:example.com,2024:custom

# %TAG directives declare prefixes
%TAG !yaml! tag:yaml.org,2002:
value: !yaml!str 42   # same as !!str

# Local tags are most common in app-specific YAML
# Verbatim tags are useful for cross-tool interoperability

# Tags are resolved by the schema (Core, JSON, Failsafe)
# Without explicit tags, the schema infers types

# Failsafe schema — only str, map, seq (no inference)
# Everything is a string unless tagged
failsafe_value: 42       # str "42"
failsafe_tagged: !!int 42  # int 42

# JSON schema — str, int, float, bool, null, map, seq
json_value: 42           # int
json_str: "42"           # str

# Core schema (default for YAML 1.2) — like JSON but
# with more lenient parsing (yes/no not bool, etc.)
core_value: 42           # int
core_bool: true          # bool
core_str: hello          # str

# Explicit tags override schema resolution
forced: !!str true       # str "true" (even in Core)

# Define your own tags for domain objects
# Example: a config loader for a custom app

# Tag a node as a "Money" object
price: !money "USD 19.99"

# Tag a node as a "DateRange"
range: !dateRange
  start: 2024-01-01
  end: 2024-12-31

# Tag nodes for custom parsing/validation
settings: !strict
  host: localhost
  port: 8080

# PyYAML example: register a constructor
# class MoneyLoader:
#     def __init__(self, value):
#         self.currency, self.amount = value.split()
#         self.amount = float(self.amount)
#
# yaml.add_constructor('!money', lambda l, n:
#     MoneyLoader(l.construct_scalar(n)))

# Safe loaders reject unknown tags — opt-in explicitly
# to avoid processing untrusted input with side effects.

# A single YAML document needs no markers
key: value
list:
  - a
  - b

# But a leading --- is a common convention
# to mark "this is YAML, not plain text"
---
key: value

# The trailing ... (end marker) is optional
# for a single document
key: value
...

# A YAML stream is multiple documents separated by ---
---
name: first
value: 1
---
name: second
value: 2
---
name: third
value: 3

# Each document is independent — anchors don't cross
# Use a parser's load_all() / load_multi() to read them
# Python (PyYAML):
#   for doc in yaml.safe_load_all(stream):
#       print(doc)

# Common use cases:
# - Kubernetes: multiple objects in one file
# - Blog generators: front matter + content
# - Log files: one record per document
# - CI/CD: multi-step pipelines

# ... explicitly ends a document
---
key: value
...
# Anything after ... is a new document or stream end

# Useful when a document's content might be ambiguous
# without an explicit end:
---
message: |
  Some content
  ---
  that looks like a separator
...
---
next: document

# Without ... the parser might think the ---
# inside the literal block is a document separator
# (though block scalars usually prevent this)

# ... is also useful in programmatic output to flush

# Directives appear at the very top, before content
# %YAML — declare YAML version
%YAML 1.2
---
key: value

# %TAG — declare a tag prefix
%TAG !e! tag:example.com,2024:
---
data: !e!custom value

# Multiple directives are allowed
%YAML 1.2
%TAG !e! tag:example.com,2024:
%TAG !yaml! tag:yaml.org,2002:
---
value: !yaml!str hello

# Directives are document-scoped — they apply to the
# next document only and must be repeated for each.
# Most config files omit directives and use defaults.

# Kubernetes multi-object file
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Namespace
metadata:
  name: production
---
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
  name: api
  namespace: production
spec:
  replicas: 3
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
  name: api
  namespace: production
spec:
  ports:
    - port: 80

# Helm chart templates: stream of objects
# CI logs: one event per document
# Static site generator: front matter + body

# A line starting with --- is ALWAYS a document separator
# (when at column 0). This can surprise you:

---
script: |
  echo hello
  ---  # this is INSIDE the block scalar — safe
next: value

# But this is NOT safe:
---
content: |
  line1
---
mistaken: this is a NEW document, not part of content!

# Inside block scalars, --- is literal (good).
# Outside, --- at column 0 always separates documents.

# Workaround for content that must contain --- at col 0:
# indent the block, or use ... to end the doc first.

# Also: a bare --- line with content on the same line
# is the document start marker, NOT a separator
--- key: value   # this is one document

# Flow sequences use [item1, item2, ...]
numbers: [1, 2, 3]
names: [Alice, Bob, Charlie]

# Empty
empty: []

# Nested flow sequences
matrix: [[1, 2], [3, 4]]

# Flow sequence of mappings
points: [{x: 1, y: 2}, {x: 3, y: 4}]

# Multi-line flow sequence (whitespace is flexible)
long: [
  alpha,
  beta,
  gamma
]

# Quoting inside flow
mixed: ["hello", 'world', 42, true]

# NO trailing comma
bad: [1, 2, 3,]   # parse error

# Flow mappings use {key: value, ...}
point: {x: 10, y: 20}
config: {host: localhost, port: 8080}

# Empty mapping
empty: {}

# Nested flow mappings
nested: {a: {b: {c: value}}}

# Quoted keys (needed for special chars)
quoted: {"key with space": value, "weird:key": 1}

# Multi-line flow mapping
config: {
  host: localhost,
  port: 8080,
  debug: true
}

# Flow mapping with flow sequence value
mixed: {nums: [1, 2, 3], name: test}

# NO trailing comma
bad: {a: 1, b: 2,}   # parse error

# Mix flow and block styles freely
config:
  name: myapp
  ports: [80, 443]        # flow sequence in block mapping
  endpoints: {api: /v1, web: /}  # flow mapping in block

# Block inside flow (less common but valid)
flow_with_block: [{name: Alice, roles: [admin, user]}, {name: Bob}]

# Flow at top level
[top, level, flow]

# Block at top level
- block
- sequence

# Pragmatic rule:
# - Block for structure (readability)
# - Flow for short inline values
# - Avoid deeply nested flow — it becomes unreadable

# Flow can nest arbitrarily
data: {users: [{name: Alice, tags: [a, b]}, {name: Bob}]}

# Equivalent block:
# data:
#   users:
#     - name: Alice
#       tags:
#         - a
#         - b
#     - name: Bob

# Multi-line nested flow (rare but valid)
matrix: {
  rows: [
    [1, 2, 3],
    [4, 5, 6]
  ],
  cols: 3
}

# Recommendation: switch to block style after 1-2 levels
# of nesting — flow becomes a "wall of brackets".

# Good uses of flow style:

# 1. Short lists of scalars
ports: [80, 443, 8080]
colors: [red, green, blue]

# 2. Small lookup maps
codes: {200: OK, 404: NotFound, 500: Error}

# 3. Single-line records in a sequence
coordinates:
  - {x: 1, y: 2}
  - {x: 3, y: 4}
  - {x: 5, y: 6}

# 4. JSON-compatible output (flow is JSON-compatible)

# Bad uses of flow style:

# 1. Long lists (use block)
#   ports: [80, 443, 8080, 8443, 9000, 9090, 9091, ...]  # hard to read

# 2. Deeply nested (use block)
#   {a: {b: {c: {d: {e: value}}}}}  # unreadable

# 3. Anything with comments (flow doesn't allow inline comments well)

# Caveat 1: special characters need quotes in flow
flow: [a, b, "c,d", "d:e"]   # commas and colons need quoting
block:
  - a
  - b
  - c,d      # no quotes needed in block style
  - d:e      # no quotes needed in block style

# Caveat 2: no trailing commas
bad: [1, 2, 3,]   # error

# Caveat 3: comments are awkward in flow
config: {
  host: localhost,  # comment allowed but clunky
  port: 8080
}

# Caveat 4: flow style has no multi-line strings
# (no | or > inside flow)
# You can use \n escapes in double quotes:
text: "line1\nline2"

# Caveat 5: flow is harder to diff in version control
# (one-line changes vs whole-block changes)

# JSON is a strict subset of YAML 1.2
# Any JSON file is valid YAML

# This is valid YAML (it's JSON):
{"name": "Alice", "age": 30, "hobbies": ["a", "b"]}

# So is this multi-line JSON:
{
  "name": "Alice",
  "age": 30,
  "hobbies": ["a", "b"]
}

# Parsers usually accept JSON files as YAML
# Python: yaml.safe_load(json_string)  # works
# JS:     YAML.load(json_string)       # works
# Go:     yaml.Unmarshal(json_bytes, &v)  # works (yaml.v3)

# But the reverse is NOT always true:
# YAML with comments, anchors, multi-docs is NOT valid JSON

# JSON:
{"name": "Alice", "age": 30, "hobbies": ["a", "b"]}

# YAML block:
name: Alice
age: 30
hobbies:
  - a
  - b

# YAML flow (closest to JSON):
{name: Alice, age: 30, hobbies: [a, b]}

# YAML with quotes (JSON-compatible):
{"name": "Alice", "age": 30, "hobbies": ["a", "b"]}

# All four parse to the same data structure.
# Pick the style that fits your use case:
# - JSON for interop and strict tools
# - YAML block for human-edited config
# - YAML flow for compact inline data

# Convert JSON to YAML using a parser
# Python:
# import json, yaml
# data = json.loads(json_string)
# yaml_str = yaml.safe_dump(data, default_flow_style=False, sort_keys=False)
#
# JS:
# const data = JSON.parse(jsonString)
# const yamlStr = yaml.dump(data)

# Example input JSON:
# {"server": {"host": "localhost", "port": 8080}, "debug": true}

# Output YAML:
# server:
#   host: localhost
#   port: 8080
# debug: true

# Conversion considerations:
# - JSON keys are always quoted -> YAML usually unquotes them
# - JSON arrays -> YAML block sequences (with default_flow_style=False)
# - JSON strings with special chars may need quoting
# - JSON null -> YAML null (or ~)
# - JSON booleans/numbers preserved

# Convert YAML to JSON
# Python:
# import json, yaml
# data = yaml.safe_load(yaml_string)
# json_str = json.dumps(data, indent=2)

# JS:
# const data = yaml.load(yamlString)
# const jsonStr = JSON.stringify(data, null, 2)

# Command-line tools:
# yq -o=json '.config' file.yaml        # mikefarah/yq
# ruby -ryaml -rjson -e 'puts JSON.generate(YAML.load(STDIN.read))' < file.yaml
# python -c 'import json,sys,yaml; print(json.dumps(yaml.safe_load(sys.stdin)))'

# Caveats when converting YAML to JSON:
# - YAML comments are LOST (JSON has no comments)
# - YAML anchors are EXPANDED to plain copies
# - YAML multi-doc streams become a JSON array (or fail)
# - YAML tags (!!) are lost or cause errors
# - YAML dates may become strings (JSON has no date type)

# To produce YAML that round-trips to JSON cleanly,
# stay within the JSON-compatible subset:

# 1. No comments
# 2. No anchors/aliases
# 3. No multi-doc streams
# 4. No tags
# 5. No block scalars (|, >) — use \n in double-quoted strings
# 6. Quote all string keys (JSON requires this)
# 7. No plain strings that look like other types

# JSON-compatible YAML:
{"name": "Alice", "age": 30, "active": true}
{"items": ["a", "b", "c"]}
{"nested": {"key": "value"}}

# Useful when you need both YAML and JSON consumers
# for the same data, or want strict type preservation.

# Many YAML dumpers have a "json-compatible" mode.

# Round-trip: YAML -> parse -> dump -> YAML
# Information that may be LOST:
# - Comments (most dumpers drop them)
# - Anchor names (dumpers may re-create or expand)
# - Key order (some dumpers sort keys)
# - Quoting style (dumpers choose their own)
# - Flow vs block style (dumpers usually pick one)
# - Whitespace and indentation amount
# - Multi-document structure (sometimes)
# - Tag prefixes and %TAG directives

# Tools that preserve style:
# - ruamel.yaml (Python): round-trip mode preserves comments/order
# - yaml.v3 (Go): preserves key order
# - prettier with yaml plugin: normalizes formatting

# For config files where humans edit:
# - Use ruamel.yaml round-trip mode
# - Or accept that dumps are "normalized"
# - Never overwrite human-edited files with dumper output
#   without diffing carefully

# Failsafe schema — the most conservative
# Recognizes ONLY three types: str, map, seq
# Everything else is a string

# Under Failsafe:
value: 42           # str "42" (NOT int)
flag: true          # str "true" (NOT bool)
empty: null         # str "null" (NOT null)
date: 2024-01-01    # str "2024-01-01" (NOT date)

# Use explicit tags to get other types
int_value: !!int 42
bool_value: !!bool true
null_value: !!null null

# When to use Failsafe:
# - Untrusted input (no implicit type coercion)
# - When you want strings only
# - As a base for custom schemas

# PyYAML: SafeLoader uses a schema close to Failsafe
# but with int/float/bool/null inference.

# JSON schema — same type system as JSON
# Recognizes: str, int, float, bool, null, map, seq

# Under JSON schema:
int: 42             # int
float: 3.14         # float
str: hello          # str
bool: true          # bool
null_val: null      # null
list: [1, 2, 3]     # seq
map: {a: 1}         # map

# Differences from Core schema:
# - Stricter number parsing (no 0o octal, no _ separators)
# - Booleans are only true/false (no yes/no)
# - No date/timestamp inference

# When to use JSON schema:
# - Interop with JSON tools
# - Strict type behavior
# - When you want JSON's type semantics

# Core schema — the DEFAULT for YAML 1.2
# Extends JSON schema with more lenient scalar resolution

# Under Core schema:
int: 42             # int
neg: -17            # int
hex: 0xFF           # int (255)
oct: 0o17           # int (15)  [YAML 1.2 syntax]
bin: 0b1010         # int (10)
float: 3.14         # float
exp: 1.0e+3         # float
inf: .inf           # float
nan: .nan           # float
bool: true          # bool (only true/false, not yes/no)
null: null          # null (also ~, empty)
str: hello          # str
date: 2024-01-01    # str (Core does NOT infer dates)

# Differences from YAML 1.1:
# - yes/no/on/off are STRINGS (not booleans)
# - 017 is a string (octal is 0o17 in 1.2)
# - Dates are strings (no implicit inference)

# Most modern parsers default to Core or close to it.

# YAML 1.1 (older, used by PyYAML by default)
bool_1_1: yes       # true (yes/no/on/off are booleans)
octal_1_1: 017      # 15 (leading 0 = octal)
sexagesimal: 1:30   # 90 (base-60!) - obscure feature

# YAML 1.2 (current spec)
bool_1_2: yes       # str "yes" (only true/false are bool)
octal_1_2: 0o17     # 15 (explicit 0o prefix)
no_sexagesimal: 1:30 # str "1:30"

# Practical impact:
# - "no" (Norway) becomes False in PyYAML (1.1)
# - "010" becomes 8 in PyYAML, "010" in 1.2
# - "on"/"off" become True/False in 1.1, strings in 1.2

# PyYAML: defaults to 1.1 behavior
# ruamel.yaml: defaults to 1.2 (with 1.1 compatibility options)
# js-yaml: defaults to 1.1 with 1.2 options
# Go yaml.v3: defaults to 1.2-ish

# Always check your parser's default schema!

# Same YAML, different parsers, different types:
value: yes

# PyYAML (1.1):        True (bool)
# js-yaml (1.1):       true (bool)
# ruamel (1.2):        "yes" (str)
# Go yaml.v3 (1.2):    "yes" (str)
# Strict 1.2:          "yes" (str)

value: 010

# PyYAML (1.1):        8 (int, octal)
# ruamel (1.2):        "010" (str)
# Go yaml.v3 (1.2):    "010" (str)

value: 1.0

# All:                 1.0 (float) - consistent

value: true

# All:                 true (bool) - consistent

# Mitigation strategies:
# 1. Quote strings that look like other types
# 2. Pin the YAML version with %YAML 1.2
# 3. Use explicit tags (!!) for critical values
# 4. Test against all target parsers

# Recommendations for choosing a schema:

# 1. For NEW projects: use YAML 1.2 Core schema
#    - More predictable (no yes/no surprises)
#    - Modern parsers support it
#    - ruamel.yaml, Go yaml.v3 default to it

# 2. For INTEROP with existing PyYAML code:
#    - Either accept 1.1 semantics
#    - Or use ruamel.yaml with 1.2 + preserve 1.1 features
#    - Quote all ambiguous strings explicitly

# 3. For UNTRUSTED input: use Failsafe or JSON schema
#    - No implicit type coercion
#    - Smaller attack surface
#    - Predictable behavior

# 4. For CONFIG FILES: use 1.2 Core + quote ambiguous strings
#    - "no", "yes", "on", "off", "010", "1.0" should be quoted
#    - Document your schema choice
#    - Lint with yamllint

# 5. For JSON INTEROP: use JSON schema
#    - Same types as JSON
#    - Round-trips cleanly

# yamllint is the standard YAML linter
# Install: pip install yamllint

# Lint a file
# yamllint config.yaml

# Lint with strict mode (warnings = errors)
# yamllint -s config.yaml

# Output example:
# config.yaml
#   3:4       error    mapping values are not allowed here
#   5:1       error    syntax error: found character '	' that cannot start any token
#   8:3       warning  missing document start "---"
#   12:5      warning  comment is not indented like content

# Lint multiple files
# yamllint file1.yaml file2.yaml file3.yaml

# Lint a directory (recursive)
# yamllint -d path/to/dir

# Read from stdin
# cat config.yaml | yamllint -

# .yamllint.yml — configuration file for yamllint
# Place in project root or ~/.config/yamllint/config

# Use a built-in profile
extends: default

# Or use a stricter profile
# extends: strict

# Override specific rules
rules:
  # Require document start marker
  document-start: disable
  # Enforce 2-space indentation
  indentation:
    spaces: 2
    indent-sequences: true
  # Max line length
  line-length:
    max: 120
    allow-non-breakable-words: true
  # Disallow trailing spaces
  trailing-spaces: enable
  # Require consistent quoting
  quoted-strings:
    quote-type: double
    required: only-when-needed
  # Disallow comments without space before #
  comments:
    require-starting-space: true
    min-spaces-from-content: 1

# Error: tab characters for indentation
# bad:
# 	key: value   <- tab not allowed
# Fix: use spaces only

# Error: colon without space
# bad:  key:value
# good: key: value

# Error: unquoted special characters
# bad:  url: http://example.com:8080   <- parsed as mapping
# good: url: "http://example.com:8080"

# Error: trailing comma in flow
# bad:  list: [1, 2, 3,]
# good: list: [1, 2, 3]

# Error: inconsistent indentation
# bad:
#   key1: value
#    key2: value   <- one extra space
# good:
#   key1: value
#   key2: value

# Error: duplicate keys (some parsers warn)
# bad:
#   key: first
#   key: second
# good: rename one

# YAML FORBIDS tabs for indentation.
# This is the #1 cause of YAML parse errors.

# Symptom: parser error like
# "found character '\t' that cannot start any token"
# or "while scanning for the next token, found tab"

# Tabs are allowed INSIDE string values:
script: |
  #!/bin/bash
  if [ -f file ]; then   # this is fine (literal content)
  \techo found           # \t inside block scalar is OK

# But tabs for STRUCTURAL indentation are forbidden:
# bad:
# services:
# \tweb:
# \t\timage: nginx

# Fix: convert tabs to spaces
# Configure your editor to use spaces for YAML files
# VS Code: "editor.insertSpaces": true, "editor.tabSize": 2
# Vim: set expandtab shiftwidth=2

# Detect tabs:
# grep -P '\t' file.yaml   (finds offending lines)

# Duplicate keys are technically discouraged
# but YAML 1.2 doesn't strictly forbid them.
# Behavior varies by parser (usually last-wins).

config:
  host: localhost
  port: 8080
  host: prod.example.com   # silent override!

# yamllint catches these:
#   4:3  error  duplication of key "host" in mapping

# Enable in .yamllint.yml:
# rules:
#   key-duplicates: enable

# Other tools that detect duplicates:
# - kubeval (for Kubernetes YAML)
# - yq (programmatic checks)
# - Custom schema validation (JSON Schema)

# Common cause: copy-paste errors, merge conflicts
# resolved incorrectly. Always lint in CI to catch.

# Validate YAML against a JSON Schema
# (JSON Schema works on YAML since YAML is a JSON superset)

# Python example with jsonschema + PyYAML:
# import json, yaml, jsonschema
# with open('schema.json') as f: schema = json.load(f)
# with open('config.yaml') as f: doc = yaml.safe_load(f)
# jsonschema.validate(doc, schema)

# Tools for Kubernetes YAML:
# kubeval            - validate against K8s schemas
# kubectl apply --dry-run=client -f file.yaml
# conftest           - policy-based validation (OPA)

# Tools for general YAML:
# yamllint           - syntax + style
# jsonschema-cli     - JSON Schema validation
# cue                - schema + validation language
# dataladen          - config validation

# Pre-commit hook example (.pre-commit-config.yaml):
# repos:
#   - repo: https://github.com/adrienverge/yamllint
#     rev: v1.32.0
#     hooks:
#       - id: yamllint
#         args: [-s]

# docker-compose.yml — multi-container apps
version: "3.9"   # compose file format version

services:
  web:
    image: nginx:1.25
    ports:
      - "80:80"
      - "443:443"
    volumes:
      - ./html:/usr/share/nginx/html:ro
    restart: unless-stopped
    depends_on:
      - api

  api:
    build:
      context: ./api
      dockerfile: Dockerfile
    environment:
      - NODE_ENV=production
      - DB_URL=postgres://db:5432/app
    ports:
      - "8080:8080"
    restart: always

  db:
    image: postgres:16
    environment:
      POSTGRES_PASSWORD: secret
    volumes:
      - db_data:/var/lib/postgresql/data
    restart: always

volumes:
  db_data:

services:
  web:
    image: nginx
    volumes:
      # Bind mount: host:container
      - ./html:/usr/share/nginx/html:ro
      # Named volume: name:container
      - shared_data:/data
      # Anonymous volume
      - /tmp/cache
    networks:
      - frontend
      - backend

  db:
    image: postgres
    volumes:
      - db_data:/var/lib/postgresql/data
    networks:
      - backend

volumes:
  db_data:
    driver: local
  shared_data:
    driver: nfs
    driver_opts:
      type: nfs
      device: ":/path/to/share"

networks:
  frontend:
    driver: bridge
  backend:
    driver: bridge
    internal: true   # no external access

services:
  api:
    image: myapi
    # Method 1: list of KEY=value
    environment:
      - NODE_ENV=production
      - LOG_LEVEL=info
    # Method 2: map (cleaner)
    environment:
      NODE_ENV: production
      LOG_LEVEL: info
    # Method 3: file
    env_file:
      - .env
      - .env.production
    # Interpolation from host environment
    environment:
      - API_KEY=${API_KEY}     # from shell
      - PORT=${PORT:-8080}      # default 8080

# .env file (auto-loaded by docker compose):
# API_KEY=abc123
# PORT=8080
# DB_URL=postgres://...

# Compose substitutes ${VAR} from host shell or .env
# Use $$ to escape (literal $):
# - TOKEN=price_$$5   # produces price_$5

services:
  api:
    image: myapi
    depends_on:
      db:
        condition: service_healthy   # wait for db healthy
      redis:
        condition: service_started
    restart: unless-stopped
    healthcheck:
      test: ["CMD", "curl", "-f", "http://localhost:8080/health"]
      interval: 30s
      timeout: 5s
      retries: 3
      start_period: 10s

  db:
    image: postgres
    restart: always
    healthcheck:
      test: ["CMD-SHELL", "pg_isready -U postgres"]
      interval: 10s
      timeout: 5s
      retries: 5

# restart policies:
# no              - never restart (default)
# always          - always restart on stop
# unless-stopped  - restart unless manually stopped
# on-failure      - restart only on non-zero exit

# docker-compose.yml — base
services:
  web:
    image: nginx
    ports:
      - "80:80"
    environment:
      - ENV=base

# docker-compose.override.yml — auto-applied on top
# (loaded automatically by 'docker compose up')
services:
  web:
    ports:
      - "8080:80"      # overrides "80:80"
    environment:
      - DEBUG=true     # added
      - ENV=override   # overrides ENV=base
    volumes:
      - ./dev.conf:/etc/nginx/conf.d/default.conf

# Multiple override files (-f flag):
# docker compose -f compose.yml -f compose.prod.yml -f compose.secrets.yml up

# Merge rules:
# - mappings: deep-merged (overrides win, others kept)
# - sequences: usually REPLACED (not appended) —
#   ports/depends_on/volumes are exceptions in some versions

# Use -f to specify explicit file order

# Profiles — opt-in services
services:
  web:
    image: nginx
    # no profile: always started

  debug:
    image: busybox
    profiles: ["debug"]   # only with --profile debug

  loadtest:
    image: locust
    profiles: ["test", "ci"]

# Enable a profile:
# docker compose --profile debug up
# docker compose --profile test --profile ci up

# Compose file format features (v3.9+):
# - deploy: placement, replicas, resources (Swarm-only in v3)
# - configs: external config files
# - secrets: mounted secret files
# - extends: inherit from another service
# - init: run tini as PID 1

services:
  worker:
    image: worker
    init: true   # proper signal handling
    extends:
      service: base   # inherit fields
    configs:
      - config1
    secrets:
      - api_key

configs:
  config1:
    file: ./config.toml
secrets:
  api_key:
    file: ./api_key.txt

# Every Kubernetes object has the same 4 top-level fields
apiVersion: apps/v1        # API group + version
kind: Deployment           # object type
metadata:                  # identity
  name: my-app
  namespace: production
  labels:
    app: my-app
    tier: backend
  annotations:
    deployment.kubernetes.io/revision: "1"
spec:                      # desired state
  replicas: 3
  selector:
    matchLabels:
      app: my-app
  template:
    metadata:
      labels:
        app: my-app
    spec:
      containers:
        - name: app
          image: my-app:1.0.0
          ports:
            - containerPort: 8080

# apiVersion + kind + metadata + spec is the universal shape
# (some objects use status too, but you don't set it)

# Labels — identify and group objects
metadata:
  labels:
    app: my-app
    tier: backend
    env: production
    version: "1.0"

# Selectors — query objects by labels
# Equality-based
selector:
  matchLabels:
    app: my-app
    env: production

# Set-based
selector:
  matchExpressions:
    - {key: tier, operator: In, values: [backend, api]}
    - {key: env, operator: NotIn, values: [dev]}
    - {key: version, operator: Exists}

# kubectl commands:
# kubectl get pods -l app=my-app
# kubectl get pods -l 'tier in (backend,api),env!=dev'
# kubectl get pods -l app=my-app -l env=production

# Annotations — non-identifying metadata
metadata:
  annotations:
    description: "My app deployment"
    contact: "[email protected]"

apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  name: my-pod
spec:
  containers:
    - name: app
      image: my-app:1.0
      ports:
        - containerPort: 8080
          name: http
      env:
        - name: LOG_LEVEL
          value: info
        - name: SECRET_KEY
          valueFrom:
            secretKeyRef:
              name: app-secrets
              key: secret-key
      resources:
        requests: {cpu: 100m, memory: 128Mi}
        limits: {cpu: 500m, memory: 512Mi}
      readinessProbe:
        httpGet: {path: /health, port: 8080}
        initialDelaySeconds: 5
        periodSeconds: 10
      volumeMounts:
        - name: config
          mountPath: /etc/config
  volumes:
    - name: config
      configMap:
        name: app-config
  restartPolicy: Always

apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
  name: my-app
spec:
  replicas: 3
  strategy:
    type: RollingUpdate
    rollingUpdate:
      maxSurge: 1
      maxUnavailable: 0
  selector:
    matchLabels:
      app: my-app
  template:
    metadata:
      labels:
        app: my-app
    spec:
      containers:
        - name: app
          image: my-app:1.0.0
          ports:
            - containerPort: 8080
          resources:
            requests: {cpu: 100m, memory: 128Mi}
            limits: {cpu: 500m, memory: 512Mi}
          readinessProbe:
            httpGet: {path: /ready, port: 8080}
  # Rollback / history
  # kubectl rollout status deployment/my-app
  # kubectl rollout undo deployment/my-app
  # kubectl rollout history deployment/my-app

apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
  name: my-app
spec:
  type: ClusterIP      # ClusterIP (default), NodePort, LoadBalancer, ExternalName
  selector:
    app: my-app        # routes to pods with these labels
  ports:
    - name: http
      port: 80         # service port
      targetPort: 8080 # container port (or named port)
      protocol: TCP
    - name: https
      port: 443
      targetPort: 8443

# NodePort: exposes on each node's IP at a static port (30000-32767)
# LoadBalancer: provisions a cloud LB
# ExternalName: CNAME to an external service

# Service types:
# ClusterIP    - internal cluster IP (default)
# NodePort     - exposes on node port + ClusterIP
# LoadBalancer - cloud LB + NodePort + ClusterIP
# ExternalName - DNS CNAME (no proxying)

# ConfigMap — non-sensitive configuration
apiVersion: v1
kind: ConfigMap
metadata:
  name: app-config
data:
  log_level: info
  max_connections: "100"
  config.yaml: |
    server:
      host: 0.0.0.0
      port: 8080
---
# Secret — sensitive data (base64-encoded)
apiVersion: v1
kind: Secret
metadata:
  name: app-secrets
type: Opaque
data:
  # base64-encoded values
  api_key: c2VjcmV0LWtleS0xMjM=   # echo -n 'secret-key-123' | base64
  db_password: cGFzc3dvcmQ=
# Or use stringData for plain text (auto-encoded):
# stringData:
#   api_key: secret-key-123

# Consumed by pods:
# env:
#   - name: API_KEY
#     valueFrom:
#       secretKeyRef:
#         name: app-secrets
#         key: api_key
# volumes:
#   - name: config
#     configMap:
#       name: app-config

# .github/workflows/ci.yml
name: CI

on:
  push:
    branches: [main, develop]
  pull_request:
    branches: [main]

jobs:
  test:
    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
    steps:
      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
      - uses: actions/setup-node@v4
        with:
          node-version: '20'
      - run: npm ci
      - run: npm test
      - run: npm run build
        env:
          NODE_ENV: production

  lint:
    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
    steps:
      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
      - uses: actions/setup-node@v4
        with:
          node-version: '20'
      - run: npm ci
      - run: npm run lint

# ${{ }} is GitHub Actions expression syntax
# MUST be escaped as ${{ }} in YAML template literals
# (here we use literal text, no escaping needed)

# .gitlab-ci.yml
stages:
  - test
  - build
  - deploy

variables:
  NODE_ENV: production
  IMAGE_TAG: $CI_COMMIT_SHORT_SHA

test:
  stage: test
  image: node:20
  script:
    - npm ci
    - npm test
  artifacts:
    reports:
      junit: test-results.xml
  coverage: '/Lines.*:\s(\d+\.\d+)\%/'

build:
  stage: build
  image: docker:24
  services:
    - docker:24-dind
  script:
    - docker build -t myapp:$IMAGE_TAG .
    - docker push myapp:$IMAGE_TAG
  only:
    - main

deploy:production:
  stage: deploy
  script:
    - ./deploy.sh
  environment:
    name: production
  only:
    - main
  when: manual   # require manual trigger

# GitHub Actions matrix
jobs:
  test:
    runs-on: ${{ matrix.os }}
    strategy:
      fail-fast: false
      matrix:
        os: [ubuntu-latest, macos-latest, windows-latest]
        node: [18, 20, 22]
        exclude:
          - os: windows-latest
            node: 18
        include:
          - os: ubuntu-latest
            node: 20
            experimental: true
    steps:
      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
      - uses: actions/setup-node@v4
        with:
          node-version: ${{ matrix.node }}
      - run: npm ci
      - run: npm test

# GitLab CI matrix (parallel matrix):
# test:
#   image: node:${NODE_VERSION}
#   parallel:
#     matrix:
#       - NODE_VERSION: [18, 20, 22]
#         OS: [linux, macos]

# GitHub Actions: reusable workflow
# .github/workflows/reusable.yml
on:
  workflow_call:
    inputs:
      node-version:
        required: true
        type: string
    secrets:
      token:
        required: true
jobs:
  build:
    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
    steps:
      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
      - uses: actions/setup-node@v4
        with:
          node-version: ${{ inputs.node-version }}
      - run: npm ci
        env:
          TOKEN: ${{ secrets.token }}

# Caller:
# jobs:
#   build:
#     uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable.yml
#     with:
#       node-version: '20'
#     secrets:
#       token: ${{ secrets.MY_TOKEN }}

# GitLab CI: include
# include:
#   - project: 'ci/templates'
#     file: '/node.yml'
#   - local: '/.gitlab/extra.yml'
#   - template: Jobs/SAST.gitlab-ci.yml

# YAML anchors reduce duplication in CI configs
# GitLab CI commonly uses anchors

.default_template: &default_template
  image: node:20
  before_script:
    - npm ci
  cache:
    paths:
      - node_modules/

test:
  <<: *default_template
  script:
    - npm test

lint:
  <<: *default_template
  script:
    - npm run lint

build:
  <<: *default_template
  script:
    - npm run build
  artifacts:
    paths:
      - dist/

# GitHub Actions supports anchors too (since 2022):
# jobs:
#   base: &base
#     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
#     steps:
#       - uses: actions/checkout@v4
#   test:
#     uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable.yml
#   # Anchors across jobs are limited — prefer reusable workflows

# GitHub Actions: environments & secrets
jobs:
  deploy:
    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
    environment:
      name: production        # requires approval if configured
      url: https://app.example.com
    steps:
      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
      - name: Deploy
        run: ./deploy.sh
        env:
          DEPLOY_KEY: ${{ secrets.DEPLOY_KEY }}
          API_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.API_TOKEN }}
          ENV: production

# Secret scopes:
# - Repository secrets: available to all workflows
# - Environment secrets: only when job uses that environment
# - Organization secrets: shared across repos

# GitLab CI: protected/masked variables
# variables:
#   # defined in UI: Settings > CI/CD > Variables
#   # - Protected: only on protected branches/tags
#   # - Masked: hidden in job logs
# deploy:
#   script:
#     - ./deploy.sh
#   environment:
#     name: production
#   only:
#     - main

# YAML deserialization can be DANGEROUS.
# Some loaders let YAML instantiate arbitrary objects.

# DANGEROUS (PyYAML < 5.1, default was unsafe):
# data = yaml.load(untrusted_input)
# An attacker can craft YAML that runs arbitrary code:
# !!python/object/apply:os.system ["rm -rf /"]

# Other dangerous tags:
# !!python/object/apply:...     # call any Python function
# !!python/object/new:...       # instantiate any class
# !ruby/object:...               # Ruby object instantiation
# !java/object:...               # Java (SnakeYAML)

# Safe loaders reject these tags by default.
# Modern PyYAML (>= 5.1): yaml.load() requires a SafeLoader
# yaml.safe_load() is ALWAYS safe.

# Rule of thumb:
# - NEVER use yaml.load() on untrusted input
# - ALWAYS use yaml.safe_load() (or full_load on trusted files)
# - Or use a schema-validated loader

# Python (PyYAML) — the classic safe/unsafe distinction

# SAFE: safe_load rejects all custom tags
import yaml
data = yaml.safe_load(untrusted_yaml)   # ALWAYS use this

# SAFE: load with SafeLoader (explicit)
data = yaml.load(untrusted_yaml, Loader=yaml.SafeLoader)

# FULL (trusted files only): full_load allows standard tags
# but not arbitrary python objects
data = yaml.full_load(trusted_yaml)

# UNSAFE: UnsafeLoader allows !!python/object — DANGEROUS
data = yaml.load(untrusted_yaml, Loader=yaml.UnsafeLoader)  # NEVER on untrusted

# PyYAML 5.1+ requires Loader argument for yaml.load()
# (raises error without it) — safety improvement.

# Other languages:
# JS (js-yaml): yaml.load(str) uses DEFAULT_SAFE_SCHEMA
# Go (yaml.v3): no object instantiation (safe by design)
# Ruby (Psych): Psych.safe_load is the safe variant
# Java (SnakeYAML): SafeConstructor for safe loading

# Even non-builtin tags can be exploited if your loader
# registers constructors that have side effects.

# Example: a "harmless" custom tag
# yaml.add_constructor('!include', include_file)
#
# If !include reads files from disk, an attacker can
# craft YAML to read sensitive files:
# config: !include /etc/passwd
# or:
# config: !include /etc/shadow
# or:
# config: !include ../../../.ssh/id_rsa

# Mitigation:
# 1. Validate the included path against an allowlist
# 2. Restrict !include to a specific directory
# 3. Refuse absolute paths and ../ traversal
# 4. Run the loader in a sandbox

# Other "innocent" tags that can be exploited:
# !env VAR_NAME        -> leaks env vars
# !exec "command"      -> arbitrary command execution
# !file /path          -> file disclosure
# !template <% ... %>  -> code injection

# Audit every custom constructor for side effects.

# "Billion Laughs" attack — exponential expansion via aliases
a: &a ["lol","lol","lol","lol","lol","lol","lol","lol","lol","lol"]
b: &b [*a,*a,*a,*a,*a,*a,*a,*a,*a,*a]
c: &c [*b,*b,*b,*b,*b,*b,*b,*b,*b,*b]
d: &d [*c,*c,*c,*c,*c,*c,*c,*c,*c,*c]
e: &e [*d,*d,*d,*d,*d,*d,*d,*d,*d,*d]

# This 5-line document expands to ~10^9 string references
# consuming gigabytes of memory on parse.

# Mitigations:
# 1. Limit alias depth (some parsers do this)
# 2. Limit total parsed size / memory
# 3. Use a streaming parser for untrusted input
# 4. PyYAML has a limit but not all parsers do
# 5. Reject documents with excessive alias nesting

# Other DoS vectors:
# - Very deep nesting (parser stack overflow)
# - Huge flat sequences/mappings (memory)
# - Pathological number formats (regex backtracking)
# - Quadratic blowup via duplicate keys

# For untrusted input: set hard size + depth limits.

# Layered defense for untrusted YAML input:

# 1. Size limit (reject oversized input)
MAX_SIZE = 1024 * 1024  # 1 MB
if len(input_text) > MAX_SIZE:
    raise ValueError("input too large")

# 2. Safe parser (rejects dangerous tags)
import yaml
try:
    data = yaml.safe_load(input_text)
except yaml.YAMLError as e:
    raise ValueError(f"invalid YAML: {e}")

# 3. Type check (expect a mapping, not a list)
if not isinstance(data, dict):
    raise ValueError("expected a mapping at top level")

# 4. Schema validation (JSON Schema, Pydantic, etc.)
from pydantic import BaseModel, ValidationError
class Config(BaseModel):
    host: str
    port: int = 8080
try:
    config = Config(**data)
except ValidationError as e:
    raise ValueError(f"schema validation failed: {e}")

# 5. Domain validation (business rules)
if config.port < 1 or config.port > 65535:
    raise ValueError("port out of range")

# Safe-by-default YAML libraries by language:

# Python:
#   - PyYAML >= 5.1 (yaml.safe_load)
#   - ruamel.yaml (safe by default, round-trip mode)
#   AVOID: yaml.load without explicit SafeLoader

# JavaScript/TypeScript:
#   - js-yaml (yaml.load uses DEFAULT_SAFE_SCHEMA)
#   AVOID: yaml.load with DEFAULT_FULL_SCHEMA on untrusted

# Go:
#   - gopkg.in/yaml.v3 (no object instantiation, safe)
#   AVOID: yaml.v2 has subtle differences, prefer v3

# Ruby:
#   - Psych (Psych.safe_load)
#   AVOID: YAML.load (uses unsafe loader in old Ruby)

# Java:
#   - SnakeYAML with SafeConstructor
#   AVOID: new Yaml() without SafeConstructor on untrusted
#   (SnakeYAML had CVEs from unsafe loading)

# Rust:
#   - serde_yaml (safe by design, no arbitrary types)

# General rule:
# - Read the library's security docs
# - Pin to a recent version (security patches)
# - Use safe_load / SafeConstructor / safe schema
# - Audit custom constructors for side effects

# Use 2 spaces for indentation (most common)
# NEVER use tabs (YAML forbids them)

# GOOD
server:
  host: localhost
  port: 8080
  routes:
    - path: /api
      handler: apiHandler
    - path: /web
      handler: webHandler

# BAD (inconsistent)
# server:
#    host: localhost
#   port: 8080      # wrong indent

# Configure your editor:
# VS Code: "[yaml]": {"editor.insertSpaces": true, "editor.tabSize": 2}
# Vim:     autocmd FileType yaml setlocal ts=2 sts=2 sw=2 expandtab
# Emacs:   (add-hook 'yaml-mode-hook
#           (lambda () (setq yaml-indent-offset 2)))

# Use a formatter:
# prettier (with yaml plugin) normalizes indentation
# yamllint checks it
# yamlfixer auto-fixes issues

# Quote strings when:
# 1. They look like another type (number, bool, null, date)
version: "1.0"        # string, not float
answer: "yes"         # string, not bool (1.1)
region: "no"          # string "no", not False (1.1)
date: "2024-01-01"    # string, not date
phone: "555-1234"     # string, not number

# 2. They contain special characters
url: "https://example.com:8080"   # colon
list: "a, b, c"                    # comma
expr: "value:with:colons"          # colons

# 3. They start with special indicators (-, ?, :, *, &, !, |, >, ', ", %, @, `)
flag: "-not-a-list"
key: "?not-a-complex-key"

# Don't quote otherwise — plain is more readable
name: Alice            # no quotes needed
path: /usr/local/bin   # no quotes needed

# Prefer double quotes for escapes (\n, \t)
# Prefer single quotes for literal strings with apostrophes
greeting: "Hello\nWorld"
possessive: 'Alice''s car'

# Pitfall 1: tabs for indentation (FORBIDDEN)
# Configure editor to use spaces

# Pitfall 2: yes/no/on/off as strings (1.1 vs 1.2)
# Always quote: "yes", "no", "on", "off"

# Pitfall 3: unquoted strings with colons
# bad:  url: http://x:8080
# good: url: "http://x:8080"

# Pitfall 4: trailing whitespace
# Some parsers are strict; linters always flag it
key: value   # <- no trailing spaces

# Pitfall 5: Windows line endings (CRLF)
# Use LF (\n) only — CRLF can cause subtle issues
# .gitattributes: *.yaml text eol=lf

# Pitfall 6: BOM at start of file
# Save as UTF-8 without BOM

# Pitfall 7: very long lines
# Wrap with block scalars or flow style
description: >
  This is a long description that wraps
  across multiple lines for readability.

# Pitfall 8: inconsistent key ordering
# Group related keys, be consistent

# Pin the YAML version if it matters
%YAML 1.2
---
key: value

# Document your schema expectations in comments:
# Required fields:
#   - host: string (hostname or IP)
#   - port: integer (1-65535)
# Optional fields:
#   - tls: boolean (default: false)
#   - cert: string (path, required if tls: true)

config:
  host: example.com
  port: 443
  tls: true
  cert: /etc/ssl/cert.pem

# Or use a JSON Schema file (config.schema.json)
# and reference it from your docs / CI:
# "Validated against schema v1.2; see config.schema.json"

# For libraries, document the schema in the README:
# ## Configuration
# The config.yaml file must contain:
# - host (str, required)
# - port (int, required, 1-65535)
# - tls (bool, optional, default: false)

# Pin schema versions in code:
# CONFIG_SCHEMA_VERSION = "1.2"
# validate(data, schema_v1_2)

# .github/workflows/lint.yml
name: Lint YAML
on: [push, pull_request]
jobs:
  yamllint:
    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
    steps:
      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
      - name: Install yamllint
        run: pip install yamllint
      - name: Lint
        run: yamllint -s .

# GitLab CI:
# yamllint:
#   image: python:3.12
#   script:
#     - pip install yamllint
#     - yamllint -s .

# Pre-commit hook (.pre-commit-config.yaml):
# repos:
#   - repo: https://github.com/adrienverge/yamllint
#     rev: v1.35.1
#     hooks:
#       - id: yamllint
#         args: [-s, --config-file, .yamllint.yml]
#   - repo: https://github.com/pre-commit/mirrors-prettier
#     rev: v3.1.0
#     hooks:
#       - id: prettier
#         types: [yaml]

# Editor integration:
# VS Code: install "YAML" extension (redhat)
#   + "yamllint" for inline linting
#   + schema validation via yaml-language-server

# Group related keys; use comments to delineate sections
server:
  # Networking
  host: 0.0.0.0
  port: 8080
  tls:
    enabled: true
    cert: /etc/ssl/cert.pem

  # Limits
  timeout: 30
  max_connections: 100
  retries: 3

# Keep nesting shallow (3-4 levels max)
# Deeply nested YAML is hard to read and edit.

# If a value is reused, use an anchor:
defaults: &defaults
  timeout: 30
  retries: 3

prod:
  <<: *defaults
  env: production

staging:
  <<: *defaults
  env: staging

# Use block scalars for multi-line values
script: |
  #!/bin/bash
  set -e
  echo "deploying"

# Keep lines under 120 chars; wrap with block scalars or
# multi-line flow style.

# Use ? to mark a complex (non-scalar) key
? apple
: red fruit

? orange
: orange fruit

# A mapping as a key
? host: localhost
  port: 8080
: connection_string

# A sequence as a key
? [us-east-1, t2.micro]
: 0.0116
? [us-east-1, t2.small]
: 0.023
? [us-west-2, t2.micro]
: 0.0125

# Useful for lookup tables
pricing:
  ? [production, large]
  : 100
  ? [production, small]
  : 50
  ? [development, large]
  : 20

# In flow style:
{[a, b]: value, {x: 1}: other}

# Caveat: many serializers don't preserve complex keys
# and may convert them to strings on output.

# A set is a mapping with null values
# Use the !!set tag for clarity
permissions: !!set
  ? read
  ? write
  ? execute

# Equivalent to:
permissions:
  read: null
  write: null
  execute: null

# Or in flow style:
flags: !!set { red, green, blue }

# Parsers may map this to a native Set type:
# Python: set() (PyYAML with !!set constructor)
# Ruby: Set (Psych)
# JavaScript: depends on library

# Use case: declare a unique collection
roles: !!set
  ? admin
  ? editor
  ? viewer

# Caveat: JSON has no Set type, so JSON conversion
# usually produces an object with null values.

# An ordered mapping preserves key order
# Use !!omap tag
timeline: !!omap
  - 2024-01-01: event A
  - 2024-02-01: event B
  - 2024-03-01: event C

# Equivalent representation as a list of single-key mappings:
# timeline:
#   - 2024-01-01: event A
#   - 2024-02-01: event B
#   - 2024-03-01: event C

# Parsers may map this to:
# Python: list of tuples, or OrderedDict
# Ruby: Array of one-key hashes (or OrderedDict)
# Go: ordered map (with custom type)

# Use case: ordered key-value pairs where order matters
# - event timelines
# - ordered preferences
# - step-by-step configurations

# Caveat: regular YAML mappings DO preserve order in
# most modern parsers (Python dict 3.7+, Ruby Hash,
# Go map iteration is random though). !!omap makes the
# intent explicit and works even where maps are unordered.

# Encode binary data as base64 with !!binary tag
image: !!binary "iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mNk+M9QDwADhgGAWjR9
  awAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=="

# Multi-line base64 (folded or literal works)
data: !!binary |
  iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42m
  k+M9QDwADhgGAWjR9awAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==

# Parsers decode to bytes:
# Python: bytes object
# Ruby: ASCII-8BIT string
# JavaScript: depends on library (often base64 string)

# Use case: embed small images, icons, or other binary
# directly in YAML config

# For larger binary data, prefer:
# - Reference by path:  image: /path/to/image.png
# - Reference by URL:   image: https://example.com/img.png
# - Store separately and link

# Verify with:
# python -c 'import yaml; d=yaml.safe_load(open("f.yaml")); print(len(d["image"]))'

# PyYAML: register a constructor for a custom tag
import yaml

class Money:
    def __init__(self, currency, amount):
        self.currency = currency
        self.amount = amount
    def __repr__(self):
        return f"Money({self.currency} {self.amount})"

def money_constructor(loader, node):
    value = loader.construct_scalar(node)  # "USD 19.99"
    currency, amount = value.split()
    return Money(currency, float(amount))

# Register the constructor (use SafeLoader scope)
yaml.add_constructor('!money', money_constructor, Loader=yaml.SafeLoader)

# Now this YAML parses to a Money object:
# price: !money "USD 19.99"
config = yaml.safe_load("price: !money \"USD 19.99\"")
print(config['price'])  # Money(USD 19.99)

# Multi-argument constructors use construct_mapping or
# construct_sequence depending on the node kind.

# SECURITY: audit every constructor for side effects.
# A constructor that calls open(), os.system(), or
# subprocess can be exploited via untrusted input.

# YAML 1.2 (2009, current spec) key changes from 1.1:
# - JSON is a strict subset
# - Booleans: only true/false (not yes/no/on/off)
# - Octal: 0o prefix (not leading 0)
# - Removed sexagesimal numbers
# - Removed merge key << from core spec (still widely supported)

# YAML 1.3 (in development) aims to:
# - Clarify ambiguous parts of 1.2
# - Standardize error reporting
# - Improve interoperability between parsers
# - Possibly restore some 1.1 features as optional

# YAML 1.2.2 (2021 update, spec revision):
# - Clarified type resolution
# - Better-defined core schema
# - Improved examples
# - No breaking changes

# Recommended practices for future-proofing:
# 1. Pin %YAML 1.2 in critical files
# 2. Quote ambiguous strings (yes/no, leading-zero numbers)
# 3. Avoid relying on << merge key for new formats
#    (or document that you depend on it)
# 4. Use JSON-compatible subset when interop matters
# 5. Watch for YAML 1.3 adoption in your parser

# Some tools (Cue, Dhall, Jsonnet) extend/replace YAML
# for complex configuration — consider them for new
# projects with advanced needs.